\4\      f/3'^  V.- 

I  Issued  February  20, 1915. 


HAWAII  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

E.  V.  WILCOX,  Special  Agent  in  Charge. 


Bulletin   No.  36. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS 
OF  HAWAII. 


c.  k.  McClelland, 

Agronomist. 


POSITORY 


UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS, 

U.  8.  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


VJL !0&. 


WASHINGTON:  ~<<*w^'#J 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1915. 


Issued  February  20,  1916. 

HAWAII  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

E.  V.  WILCOX,  Special  Agent  in  Charge. 


Bulletin   No.  36. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS 
OF  HAWAII. 


C.  K.  McCLELIAND, 

Agronomist. 


UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OK 
OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS, 

D.  8.   DEPARTMENT   OF    AGRICrjl/TTJBE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTTNft    OFFICR. 

1915. 


HAWAII    AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION,    HONOLULU. 

(Under  the  supervision  of  A.  C.  True,  Director  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.] 

Walter  H.  Evans,  Chief  of  Division  of  Insular  Stations,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

STATION   STAFF. 

E.  V.  Wilcox,  Special  Agent  in  Charge. 
J.  Edgar  Higgins,  Horticulturist. 

W.  P.  Kelley,  Chemist. 

C.  K.  McClelland,  Agronomist. 

D.  T.  Fullaway,  Entomologist. 

W.  T.  McGeorge,  Assistant  Chemist. 
Alice  R.  Thompson,  Assistant  Chemist. 
C.  J.  Hunn,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 
V.  S.  Holt,  Assistant  in  Horticulture. 
C.  A.  Sahr,  Assistant  in  Agronomy. 

F.  A.  Clowes,  Superintendent  Hawaii  Substations. 

(2) 


LE1TER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Honolulu,  Hawaii,  June  1,  191 4. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  and  recommend  for 
publication  as  Bulletin  No.  36  of  the  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  a  paper  on  The  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  Hawaii,  pre- 
pared by  C.  K.  McClelland,  agronomist  of  this  station.  With  the 
increase  in  the  population  of  Hawaii,  the  business  of  ranching  is 
becoming  more  and  more  important.  For  many  years  grasses  and 
other  forage  plants  have  been  imported  from  various  parts  of  the 
world  to  supplement  the  native  forage  in  the  Territory.  Some  of 
these  imported  plants  have  greatly  added  to  the  carrying  capacity  of 
the  ranges.  This  bulletin  gives  a  detailed  idea  of  the  present  status 
of  forage  plants  on  the  various  Hawaiian  ranches. 
Very  respectfully, 

E.  V.  Wilcox, 
Special  Agent  in  Charge. 
Dr.  A.  C.  True, 

Director  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

TJ.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Publication  recommended. 
A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Publication  authorized. 

D.  F.  Houston,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

(3) 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Introduction T 

Composition  of  some  Hawaiian  feeds 10 

The  more  important  grasses  in  Hawaii 13 

Leguminous  forage  plants 29 

Miscellaneous  forage  plants 32 

Less  important  grasses 36 

Recommendations  for  planting 39 

Planting  grasses 40 

Management  of  range  lands 41 

Undesirable  and  poisonous  plants 42 

Cultivated  forage  crops 42 

Conclusion 43 

(5) 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  I.   Cynodon  dactylon  (manienie),  Chxtochloa  verticillata  (bristly  foxtail), 

and  Chrysopogon  aciculatus  (pilipiliula) 16 

II.  Paspalum  dilatatum  (Australian  water  grass),  P.  conjugation  (Hilo 

grass),  and  P.  orbiculare  (mau-laiki) 16 

III.  Panicum  maximum  (Guinea  grass),  P.  colonum,  and  P.  crus-galli  (barn- 

yard grass) 20 

IV.  Panicum  pruriens  (kukaipuaa),  Eleusine  aegyptiaca,  and  E.  indica  (yard 

grass) 20 

V.  Andropogon  contortus  (pili),  Cenchrus  echinatus  (umealu),  Eragrostis 

unioloides,  and  E.  plumosa 24 

VI.  Fig.  1. — Panicum  barbinode  (Para  grass  or  panicum).     Fig.  2. — Pani- 
cum maximum  (Guinea  grass) 24 

VII.  Fig.  1. — Melinis  minutiflora  (molasses  grass).     Fig.  2. — Andropogon 

sorghum  varieties  (a,  Sudan  grass;  b,  Tunis  grass) 24 

VIII.  Chloris  radiata,  C.  gay  ana  (Rhodes  grass),  and  C.  elegans.  : 24 

IX.  Fig.  1. — A  prickly  pear  pasture,  Haleakala  ranch.     Fig.  2. — A  rocky 

pasture  where  only  annual  weeds  and  grasses  are  found 36 

(6) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  HAWAII. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  grazing  industry  is  one  of  the  important  and  profitable  enter- 
prises of  Hawaii.  Continual  summer  has  eliminated  the  necessity 
of  storing  feed  for  use  in  winter,  although  in  recent  years  there  has 
arisen  the  problem  of  supplying  feed  during  periods  of  long-continued 
drought. 

The  land  that  forms  the  basis  of  all  of  the  ranches  of  Hawaii  is 
rough,  broken,  steep,  rocky,  forested,  or  is  unfitted  for  general  agri- 
cultural purposes.  Formerly  large  areas  of  arable  land  were  included 
in  the  ranches,  but  much  of  this  has  been  withdrawn.  Eventually  all 
arable  land  will  be  put  to  more  economic  use. 

In  the  early  days,  because  of  the  large  areas  of  excellent  pasture 
which  were  entirely  unused,  many  domestic  animals  escaped,  ran 
wild  in  the  mountains,  and  there  greatly  increased  in  numbers. 
These  wild  animals  became  so  destructive  to  the  forests  as  seriously 
to  threaten  other  industries  which  had  developed,  and  laws  were 
passed  reserving  certain  areas  for  forest  purposes,  and  all  wild  ani- 
mals were  ordered  to  be  killed.  But  even  now  many  wild  cattle 
and  goats  are  to  be  found. 

The  development  of  the  sugar  industry  has  created  a  great  demand 
for  domestic  animals  for  draft  purposes  and  for  food  for  the  employees. 
At  an  early  date,  then,  the  business  of  ranching  was  undertaken  by 
corporations  and  by  private  interests. 

Beyond  the  establishment  of  lines  and  fences  and  the  slaughtering 
of  the  cattle  for  use,  little  was  done  in  the  way  of  improving  the  meth- 
ods of  management  on  the  cattle  ranches,  but  in  more  recent  times 
many  steps  to  do  this  have  been  taken,  including— 

(1)  The  importation  of  pure  bred  stock. 

(2)  The  introduction  of  tame  grasses  and  other  forage  plants. 

(3)  The  destruction  of  undesirable  grasses  and  weeds. 

(4)  The  growing  of  crops  and  storage  of  feed  for  live  stock  during 

periods  of  drought  and  shortage  of  feed. 
Ranching  is  now  a  definite  enterprise  and  not  a  haphazard  venture. 
The  establishing  of  the  forest  reserves;  the  withdrawal  of  tillable 
land  for  the  growing  of  sugar,  pineapples,  and  other  crops;  and  th© 
67092°— Bull.  36—15 2  (7) 


8 

increase  in  population  are  factors  which  have  hastened  the  placing 
of  ranching  upon  a  better  basis. 

The  question  what  feeds  are  consumed  by  cattle  in  the  forests 
is  of  little  importance.  It  is  known  that  they  feed  largely  on  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  the  trees  and  more  especially  upon  the  smaller 
undergrowth,  including  weeds,  grasses,  and  other  plants.  As  much 
of  the  forest  is  now  reserved  from  such  use,  we  are  more  interested 
in  what  cattle  find  to  eat  upon  strictly  grazing  lands  and  as  to  what 
will  form  the  bulk  of  the  feed  there  in  the  future,  and  a  study  has 
been  made  of  the  native  and  introduced  forage  plants,  their  relative 
importance,  and  their  value  under  differing  conditions  of  environ- 
ment. 

As  having  an  important  bearing  on  the  production  of  forage,  the 
rainfall  in  various  localities  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Average  annual  and  monthly  precipitation  at  some  Hawaiian  ranches  and  other  points.1 


Station. 


Island  of  Hawaii: 

Hilo 

Huehue  2 

Humuula2 

Kapapala  ranch 

Kohalamill 

Kukaiaumill 

Napoopoo 

Puakea  ranch2 

Puuwaawaa  ranch2 

Volcano  house 

Waimea 

Island  of  Maui: 

Haleakala  ranch — 

Kula(Erehwon)... 

Nahiku 

Waiopae  ranch 

Island  of  Oahu: 

Ahuimanu 

Kaneohe 

Tantalus 

Waianae 

Waimanalo 

Island  of  Kauai: 

Kilauoa 

Kealia 

Grove  farm 

McBryde  residence 

Kekaha 

Island  of  Molokai: 

Molokai  ranch 


Eleva- 
tion. 


Feet. 

100 
2,000 
6,685 
2,150 

270 

250 
25 

600 
2,736 
4,000 
2,720 

2,000 

4,200 

700 

1,740 

350 

100 

1,360 

6 

25 

342 
15 

200 

900 

40 


Years 

of 
record. 


25 


Jan. 


Inches. 
9.39 
3.92 
2.24 
5.63 
3.82 
7.42 
2.33 
4.85 
3.62 
6.30 
4.72 

6.32 

7.29 
14.46 
2.81 

6.45 
3.76 
6.60 
2.88 
4.21 

5.76 
4.12 
4.62 
8.o9 
3.30 


Feb. 


Inches. 
11.77 
2.49 
3.43 
6.68 
5.02 
7.97 
2.21 
5.64 
2.86 
8.55 
4.83 

6.84 
6.04 
13.28 
5.10 

9.52 
5.85 
10.59 
5.30 
7.11 

6.55 

4.89 
5.20 
6.74 
3.63 


12         4.80         6.65         4.39         2.43 


Mar. 


Inches. 
16.02 
2.99 
2.60 
7.64 
6.70 
13.78 
2.53 
9.32 
3.27 
9.72 
5.16 

7.45 

4.85 

19.54 

4.12 

8.76 
6.70 
9.85 
2.23 
6.39 

7.79 
7.04 
6.15 
10.19 
4.14 


Apr. 


Inches. 
13.67 
1.99 
1.58 
3.62 
5.62 
10.94 
2.40 
5.14 
1.71 
7.45 
3.50 

3.29 

1.73 

18.11 

1.62 

6.44 
3.84 
8.10 
.65 
2.18 

4.81 
1.89 
3.14 
4.80 
.92 


May. 


Inches. 
9.60 
2.49 
1.93 
3.19 
4.14 
5.10 
4.32 
4.94 
2.32 
5.52 
2.71 

1.65 

2.79 
10.81 


6.94 
4.26 
7.79 
.68 
3.02 

6.27 
2.34 
3.08 
3.22 
2.96 

1.27 


June. 


Inches. 
7.10 
2.59 
.80 
1.28 
3.23 
3.37 
3.13 
3.64 
1.12 
3.34 
2.22 


1.88 

10.59 

.18 


4.08 
2.59 
6.69 
.28 
1.51 

4.02 
1.62 
1.99 
4.26 
.32 


Computed  mainlyfrom  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Weather  Bur., Hawaiian  Sect.Climat.  Serv.,  Ann.  Summary, 
1911. 

2  Calculated  from  records,  1906-1911,  inclusive.  No  record  at  Humuula  in  1907.  Average  for  Puakearanch 
high  because  of  an  exceptionally  heavy  rainfall  in  1909.    Normal  should  be  about  50  inches  annually. 


Average  annual  and  monthly  precipitation  at  some  Hawaiian  ranches  and  other  points- 
Continued. 


Station. 


Eleva- 
tion. 


Years 

of 
record. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct, 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Annual. 


Inches. 
136.53 
31.11 
23.72 
53.28 
55.64 
87.66 
34.30 
66.39 
29.02 
78.71 
42.40 

47.01 

37.90 

178.31 

22.93 

83.97 
53. 97 
125.80 
20.77 
44.34 

69.28 
39.97 
45.86 
70.31 
22.64 

34.45 


Island  of  Hawaii: 

Hilo 

Huehue1 

Humuula1 

Kapapala  ranch 

KohaLamill 

Kukaiaumill 

Napoopco 

Puakea ranch1 

Puuwaawaa  ranch 1 . 

Volcano  house 

Waimea 

Island  of  Maui: 

Haleakala  ranch 

Kula(Erehwon).... 

Nahiku 

Waiopae  ranch 

Island  of  Oahu: 

Ahuimanu , 

Kaneohe 

Tantalus 

Waianae 

"Waimanalo 

Island  of  Kauai: 

Kilauea 

Kealia 

Grove  farm 

McBryde  residence 

Kekaha 

Island  of  Molokai: 

Molokai  ranch 


Fid. 

100 
2,000 
6,685 
2,150 

270 

250 
25 

600 
2,736 
4,000 
2,720 

2,000 

4,200 

700 

1,740 

350 

100 

1,360 

6 

25 

342 
15 

200 

900 

40 

800 


Inches. 
10.46 
1.41 
1.94 
2.03 
4.87 
5.71 
2.77 
6.44 
3.49 
4.60 
2.82 

1.27 

1.69 

13.18 

.33 

4.38 
2.57 
6.54 
.33 
1.40 

4.76 
1.91 
2.21 
4.94 
.45 

1.18 


Inches. 
12. 56 
2.38 
3.25 
3.55 
4.58 
7.12 
4.13 
5.06 
1.60 
7.86 
3.35 

2.76 
3.50 
18.33 


5.94 
4.44 
9.29 
.99 
1.76 

5.01 
1.99 
2.73 
5.88 
1.14 


.  99 


Inches. 
10.66 
3.55 
1.48 
3.75 
3.78 
4.44 
4.02 
4.71 
3.49 
4.70 
2.12 

2.23 

2.90 

13.39 

.45 

6.74 
3.90 
9.56 
.97 
2.08 

4.47 
2.32 
2.76 
5.16 
1.12 

1.16 


Inches. 
10.97 
2.04 
1.67 
4.33 
3.67 
5.14 
2.24 
3.50 
1.79 
5.77 
2.67 

2.24 

1.95 

12.31 

1.12 

6.41 
4.30 

7.17 

.98 

2.50 

5.69 
3.76 
3.62 
4.70 
1.20 

1.63 


Inches. 
13.09 
1.28 
2.25 
6.81 
5.05 
8.52 
1.47 
4.10 
1.50 
8.42 
3.17 

4.82 
2.46 
16.93 
2.43 

8.87 
4.96 
10.08 
2.65 
5.21 

6.95 
3.65 
5.50 
5.97 
2.64 

3.82 


Inches. 
11.24 
3.95 
5.38 
4.77 
5.16 
8.09 
2.75 
9.08 
2.26 
6.48 
5.13 

7.18 
3.36 
17.38 
3.05 

9.44 
6.80 
11.51 
2.83 
6.97 

6.38 
4.44 
4.86 
6.36 
2.76 

5.27 


1  Calculated  from  records,  1906-1911,  inclusive.    No  record  at  Humuula  in  ly07.    Average  for  Puakea 
ranch  high  because  of  an  exceptionally  heavy  rainfall  in  1909.    Normal  should  be  about  50  inches  annually. 

A  study  of  rainfall  statistics  on  the  Hawaiian  Islands  reveals  the 
fact  that  the  average  annual  rainfall  at  any  point  seldom  falls  much 
below  20  inches.  In  the  mainland  States  the  line  of  20  inches  rain- 
fall roughly  follows  the  line  of  100°  west  longitude  and  marks  the  line 
between  sure  and  uncertain  crop  regions.  West  of  that  meridian 
much  land  is  now  taken  up  in  "dry  farming"  and  the  balance  is  in 
ranch,  mountain,  or  desert  land. 

However,  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  land  in  Hawaii  re- 
ceives over  20  inches  of  rain  does  not  tell  the  complete  story.  Some 
soils  allow  percolation  so  freely  that  most  of  the  water  passes  beyond 
the  reach  of  plants;  some  lands  are  so  steep  that  nearly  all  is  lost  by 
surface  drainage;  the  precipitation  is  so  heavy  at  times  that  no 
opportunity  for  percolation  is  given,  or  it  may  be  so  light  that  all  is 
quickly  lost  by  evaporation.  Because  of  heat  and  wind,  evaporation 
is  high  at  certain  times  and  places  and  the  drier  the  season  and  the 
more  the  need  for  moisture,  the  higher  is  the  rate  of  evaporation.  Some 
figures  giving  the  effective  annual  and  monthly  rainfall  would  be  of 
more  value  in  determining  the  crop  possibilities  of  a  given  region. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation  determines  the  need  for  moisture. 
With  annual  weeds  and  grasses  a  heavy  rainfall  for  a  short  season  is 
best  in  order  to  start  vegetation  and  push  it  to  maturity. 


10 

The  amount  of  effective  precipitation  from  May  to  October  largely 
determines  the  carrying  capacity  of  a  ranch.  Where  the  monthly 
rainfall  falls  below  about  2  inches,  the  precipitation  commonly  occurs 
in  small  showers  and,  the  moisture  is  for  the  most  part  lost.  On 
nearly  all  Hawaiian  ranches  there  occurs  a  shortage  of  feed  during 
the  summer  and  early  fall  months.  Although  knowing  the  advisa- 
bility of  alternating  and  resting  the  paddocks,  the  manager  is  often 
given  no  choice  but  must  use  all  available  feed  in  order  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  his  cattle.  At  this  time  grasses,  sedges,  and  miscellaneous 
forage  plants  which  are  usually  not  relished  by  live  stock  are  readily 
eaten,  and  are  therefore  to  be  considered  of  value.  As  an  example, 
Hilo  grass  is  the  means  whereby  hundreds  of  cattle  are  enabled  to 
live  over  the  period  of  scarcity;  prickly  pear,  too,  becomes  an  im- 
portant factor.  It  is  very  fortunate  that  the  algaroba  fruits  at  this 
season  and  thus  helps  out  in  critical  periods.  Some  ranchers  are 
preparing  to  store  feed  against  this  time  of  need.  On  the  Parker 
ranch  there  is  now  storage  room  for  1,500  tons  of  silage,  enough  to 
furnish  1,000  head  of  cattle  25  pounds  per  day  for  120  days.  The 
erection  of  more  silos  is  contemplated.  The  Cornwell  ranch,  Erehwon 
and  Mokuleia  dairies,  Raymond  ranch,  and  others  have  now  provided 
similar  storage.  *  On  Molokai  there  is  a  considerable  acreage  planted 
each  year  in  corn,  and  the  stover  is  shredded  and  baled  because  in 
this  form  it  is  possible  to  haul  it  several  miles  to  the  cattle  when  they 
are  feeding  upon  algaroba  beans  and  require  roughage  to  balance 
their  diet. 

Crops  which  could  be  grown  to  supplement  pastures  include  sor- 
ghum, Kafir  corn,  milo  maize,  mangel-wurzel,  sugar  beet,  and  cassava, 
one  or  more  of  which  should  prove  satisfactory  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  Territory.  Alfalfa  would  prove  a  great  benefit,  since  it  grows 
readily,  but  it  is  not  always  easily  cured  for  baling. 

The  possible  shortage  of  summer  feed  is  something  which  all  the 
stockmen  of  the  drier  districts  now  plan,  but  there  is  another  shortage 
which  at  times  has  caused  great  loss.  When  the  precipitation  during 
the  rainy  season  falls  far  below  normal  the  annual  weeds  and  grasses 
make  no  growth.  Under  this  condition,  the  growing  of  supplement- 
ary crops  is  hazardous  or  impossible  and  there  is  little  else  to  do  but 
to  reduce  the  size  of  the  herds. 

COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  HAWAIIAN  FEEDS. 

In  1906  the  Hawaii  Experiment  Station  published  a  bulletin  upon 
the  Composition  of  Some  Hawaiian  Feeding  Stuffs,  by  E.  C.  Shorey.1 
In  later  publications  analyses  of  various  grasses  have  been  reported 
in  addition.2     The  following  table  gives  some  analyses  taken  from 

i  Hawaii  Sta.  Bui.  13.  2  Hawaii  Sta.  Rpts.  1907,  p.  63;  1908,  p.  58. 


11 


the  above  publications,  some  heretofore  unpublished,  and  a^few  from 
other  sources.  In  order  to  give  the  best  comparison  between  these 
materials,  only  the  analyses  of  water-free  material  is  given  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  above  sources  for  complete  data. 

Composition  of  Hawaiian  feeds. 
[Dry-matter  basis.] 


Kind  of  feed. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Ash. 


Lime. 


Guinea  grass 

Para  grass 

Water  grass 

Rhodes  grass 

Natal  red  top 

Australian  blue  grass 

Johnson  grass  i 

Sudan  grass 

Tunis  grass 

Rescue  grass 

Chztochloa  verticillata 

Paspalum  orbiculare 

Paspalum  conjugatum 

Panicum  crus-galli 

Bermuda  grass 

Buffalo  grass 

Pilipiliula 

Crab  grass 

Pili  grass 

Yard  grass 

Chloris  elegans 

Spanish  clover 

Desmodium  triflorum 

Alfalfa 

Purslane 

Pualele 

Honohono 

Puaki 

Prickly  pear: 

Young  fronds 

Old  fronds 

Ti  leaves 

Cassava  roots 

Algaroba: 

Whole  beans 

Average  pods,  seeds  removed 

Kentucky  blue  grass l 

Perennial  rye  grass • 

Italian  rye  grass 1 

Orchard*  grass  * 


Per  cent. 

5.52 

9.10 

11.23 

7.47 

4.69 

6.31 

8.01 

8.44 

6.27 

11.76 

9.82 

4.96 

4.71 

12.32 

6.86 

4.12 

5.02 

10.96 

4.84 

8.41 

7.82 

8.82 

14.42 

25.26 

21.66 

13.82 

13.27 

6.70 

8.19 

7.25 

13.85 

3.79 

10.36 
5.59 
9.9 

11.7 

8.2 
9.0 


Per  cent. 
0.87 
1.11 
2.44 
2.08 
1.99 
2.00 
2  33 
1.89 
1.53 
2.63 
1.31 
1.07 
2.30 
2.19 

.58 
1.09 

.61 
1.28 
1.38 
4.58 
1.45 

.76 


1.30 
1.11 
3.04 
8.21 


.18 
4.9 
2.44 
1.8 
2.9 


Per  cent. 
54.59 
42.92 
42.21 
48.86 
42.09 
41.20 
51.1 
43.06 
41.92 
39.85 
42.14 
53.48 
54.39 
36.66 
59.84 
62.33 
61.15 
48.95 
49.79 
41.25 
43.92 
57.57 
39.90 
32.25 
45.41 
45.54 
47.62 
61.06 

60.33 
68.73 
43.07 
72.02 

54.76 

63.10 

47.9 

47.1 

49.2 

45.5 


Per  cent. 
28.17 
35.96 
34.48 
33.30 
41.99 
43.22 
31.7 
36.99 
40.27 
37.29 
35.09 
31.84 
29.93 
38.58 
22.93 
28.23 
27.56 
26.55 
32.53 
35.51 
32.00 
24.89 
33.40 
28.85 
11.04 
19.96 
22.24 
22.28 


11.33 
30.87 
10.93 

28.88 

27.29 

29.2 

29.5 

33.3 

36.0 


Per  cent. 
10.89 
11.06 
9.55 
8.29 
9.24 
7.27 


10.01 

8.47 

11.64 

8.63 

8.25 

10.24 

9.83 

6.66 

5.47 

10.03 

11.57 

12.23 

11.94 

3.93 

7.92 

11.23 

20.00 

15.00 

13.33 

8.54 

20.85 

21.00 

9.06 

4.07 

3.83 

3.81 

8.0 

9.2 

7.5 


Per  cent. 

0.54 

.29 

.42 

.86 


.39 
.26 
.13 
.25 
.17 
.03 
.14 
.47 
.IT 
.22 
.76 
2.00 
1.30 
.62 
.77 
.54 
2.18 

3.16 
4.83 
.53 
.27 

.38 
.36 


6.65 


1  Calculated  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding.    Madison,  Wis.,  1910, 10th  ed.,  pp.  568,  569. 

Feeds  must  be  compared  by  results.  The  successful  production 
of  beef  and  mutton  in  Hawaii  is  proof  of  the  nutritiousness  of  the 
forage.  However,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  value  of  feeds 
which  analyses  do  not  reveal,  due  to  palatability  and  digestibility. 
No  percentages  of  digestibility  have  been  worked  out  by  feeding 
experiments  conducted  in  Hawaii. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  table  that  the  analyses  of  grasses  of 
Hawaii  compare  very  favorably  with  the  few  analyses  here  given  of 
tame  grasses  on  the  mainland;  that  several  of  the  grasses  greatly 
exceed  others  in  their  content  of  protein  and  fat;  that  honohono, 


12 

purslane,  and  pualele  excel  most  of  the  grasses;  and  that  the  whole 
kiawe  bean  is  superior  to  the  pods  only.  This  latter  fact  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  grinding  so  as  to  obtain  the  value  of  the  bean  itself 
which  contains  30  per  cent  of  protein  which  is  lost  unless  the  seed  is 
crushed. 

E.  C.  Shorey  and  V.  A.  Norgaard  have  shown  the  shortage  of  lime 
in  various  Hawaiian  feeding  stuffs  and  called  attention  to  the  ill 
effects  resulting  from  this  lack  and  also  to  methods  of  correcting 
the  deficiency. 

According  to  various  authorities  on  physiological  chemistry, 
osteomalacia  and  other  similar  troubles,  such  as  rickets  in  the  human 
family,  "pica"  and  "lamesickness"  among  animals,  in  which  there 
is  softening  of  the  bone,  are  not  always  caused  by  lack  of  mineral 
material  in  the  food.  These  diseases  are  caused  by  a  disarrangement 
of  the  nutritive  factors.  A  lack  of  inorganic  material  in  the  food  of 
growing  animals  results  in  the  formation  of  finer-boned,  smaller 
animals.  In  a  mother  animal  such  lack  results  in  the  taking  of 
material  from  her  own  bones  to  supply  the  foetus  she  is  carrying  or  to 
produce  milk  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  which  she  is  nursing.  There- 
fore, any  deficiency  of  lime  in  feeding  stuffs  should  be  made  up  for 
breeding  stock  or  growing  animals. 

It  has  been  observed  by  many  ranchmen  that  when  animals  graze 
on  Hilo  grass  there  is  a  tendency  toward  this  reduction  in  size  and 
bone.  Where  pasturage  is  known  to  be  deficient  in  lime  the  mineral 
matter  must  be  supplied  by  feeding  bone  meal  with  salt  or  with 
molasses. 

Another  deficiency  of  some  of  the  pasture  lands  is  the  absence  of 
legumes.  The  table  shows  the  weeds  and  grasses  to  be  more  or  less 
rich  in  protein  but  cattle  need  a  more  nitrogenous  supplement  for 
economical  feeding. 

On  the  higher  lands,  where  hop  clover,  white  clover,  Indian  clover, 
or  red  clover  have  become  naturalized,  the  pasturage  has  been  greatly 
improved.  At  low  and  medium  elevations,  Spanish  clover  is  widely 
distributed.  Desmodium  triflorum  grows  thickly  at  the  lower  ele- 
vations, particularly  with  pilipiliula.  Black  medic  and  bur  clover 
are  two  other  legumes  which,  though  widely  distributed,  are  not 
abundant.  Bur  clover  is  spreading  more  rapidly  on  the  higher  than 
on  the  lower  lands. 

As  long  as  grass-fattened  animals  satisfy  the  demands  of  local 
markets  the  present  feeds,  although  open  to  improvement,  will  con- 
tinue to  be  satisfactory,  the  greatest  problem  being,  as  stated  else- 
where, to  get  sufficient  quantity,  regardless  of  quality,  during  periods 
of  drought. 


13 

THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  GRASSES  IN  HAWAII. 

In  the  following  pages  notes  are  given  on  the  distribution,  charac- 
teristics, and  value  of  some  of  the  more  important  native  and  intro- 
duced grasses  found  on  the  ranches  of  Hawaii.  Preliminary  to  the 
more  detailed  discussion  of  the  various  species  a  summary  of  them 
may  be  found  in  the  following  table,  in  which  scientific  and  popular 
names  and  notes  on  their  distribution  are  given: 

The  more  important  grasses. 


Botanical  name. 


Common  name. 


Hawaiian  name. 


Remarks. 


Andropogon  contortus 

A  ndropogon       halepensis 

(var.). 
Andropogon  saccharides . . 
Anthoxantkum  odoratum. . 


Briza  minor 

Bromus  unioloides. 


Calamagrostis  fosteri 

Cenchrus  echinatus 

Chsctochloi  fflauca 

ChsetocMoz  verticiUata. . 

Chioris  gayana 

Chrysopogon  aciculatus. 
Cynodon  dactylon 


Dactylis  glomerate. 
Elcusine  indica ... 


Eragrostis  variabilis. 

Festuca  myurus 

Eolcus  lav.atu-s 


Hordeum  murinum. . 
Exit  ria  glomerxtx  . ., 
Loliuvi  pcrenne 


Panicum  colonum  or  Echi- 

nochloa  colonx. 
Panicum     crus-galli     or 

Fchinochloi  crus-galli. 
Panicum  barbinode". 


Panicum  maximum. 
Panicum  pruriens. . 


Panicum  iorridum 

Paspalum  conjugitum. 

Paspalum  dilatatum. . 

i?i  orbiculare . . 

Poa  annua 


Poa  pratensis 

Stenctaphrum  americanum 

Syntherisma  sangvinalis. . . 

8vntheruma  heueri 

frichoixna  rosea 


Twisted  heard  grass. 
Johnson  grass 


Fuzzy  top 

Sweet  vernal  grass . 


Mi. 


Quaking  grass 

Prairie  or  rescue  grass. 


Toothed  bent  grass.. . 
Sandbur  or  bur  grass. 

Yellow  foxtail 

Bristly  foxtail 

Rhodes  grass 


Heupuueo 

Umealu... 


Bermuda  grass 

Orchard  grass  or  cocks- 
foot. 
Yard  grass 


Tiipii  or  pilipiliula. 
Manienie 


Rat-tail  fescue , 

Yorkshire  fog,  velvet,  or 
meadow  soft  grass. 

Wall  barley 

Mountain  pili 

Perennial  iye  grass 


Six  weeks  grass  (on  Mo- 

lokai). 
Barnyard  grass 


Manienie  alii  (on  Molo- 

kai). 
Emoloa  or  Kalamalo 


Pili-uka. 


Para  grass    (commonly 
called  "panicum"). 

Guinea  grass 

Crab  grass 


Kukaipuaa. . . 
Kakonakona. 


Hi!o  grass 

Australian  water  grass. . 

Rice  grass 

Annual  meadow  or  low 

spear  grass. 
Kentucky  blue  grass. . . 
BuiTalo  grass 


Crab  grass 

do 

Natal  redtop. 


Mau-laiki . 


Manienie-akiaki. 


Kukaipuaa 

Kukaipuaa-uka. 


On  low  dry  lands. 

On    alfalfa    and    sugar 

lands. 
For  low  dry  lands. 
Found  in  wet  districts  of 

Molokai. 
In  wet  regions. 
At  elevations  of  2,000  feet 

and  above. 
Do. 
On  dry  sandy  lands. 
Pest  on  Kauai. 
A  weedy  annual. 
For  meadows. 
Worthless  as  feed. 
At  elevations  up  to  5,000 

feet. 
At  elevations  of  4,000  feet 

and  above. 


At  elevations  of  4,000  to 
7,000  feet. 

In  dry  regions. 
At  elevations  of  4,000  feet 
and  above. 


Along  water    ditches  or 

submerged  lands. 
Plant  in  wet  places. 


Valuable  annual,  low  ele- 
vations. 
Eaten  in  dry  seasons. 

Good  at  all  elevations. 

Worthless. 

At  elevations  of  4,000  to 
6,000  feet. 
Do. 

From  sea  level  to  eleva- 
tions of  4,000  feet. 


Stenotaphrum  americanum,  called  manienie-akiaki,  buffalo  grass,  or 
in  the  South,  St.  Augustine  grass,  is  found  in  all  warm  countries  and  is 
a  valuable  grass  under  all  conditions  of  moisture  and  at  all  elevations, 
but  particularly  below  4,000  feet.  It  is  aggressive  in  its  growth  when 
moisture  conditions  are  good,  and  will,  when  not  grazed,  overrun 
guava,  lantana,  and  other  bushes,  but  not  destroy  them.  It  is  an 
excellent  grass  to  plant  in  fields  abandoned  because  of  Japanese  nufc 


14 

grass,  or  coco  grass,  since  it  forms  a  dense  mat  and  furnishes  abundant 
feed  while  at  the  same  time  holding  the  coco  grass  in  check.  It  is 
!  propagated  readily  by  cuttings  of  the  long  creeping  stems.     It  is 

closely  grazed,  particularly  by  cattle,  and  is  valued  for  maintenance 
rather  than  for  growth  or  fattening.  It  occupies  considerable  areas 
on  all  of  the  islands,  particularly  on  Kauai.  It  grows  rather  slowly 
in  extremely  dry  locations.  It  is  crowded  out  by  Hilo  grass  where 
rainfall  is  excessive,  which  may  be  partly  due  to  the  grazing  of  the 
one  and  not  of  the  other. 

Clirysopogon  aciculatus  piipii,  or  pilipiliula  (PL  I,  3),  is  a  nearly 
worthless  grass  which  covers  considerable  areas.  It  has  creeping 
stems  which  root  from  the  j  oints.  It  is  more  aggressive  than  manienie 
and  will  crowd  out  the  latter  grass.  It  is  eaten  by  cattle,  but  is  of 
little  value,  and  is  especially  objectionable  for  sheep  because  of  the 
penetrating  awns.  It  is  easily  eradicated  by  plowing,  and  where  it  is 
possible  to  do  this  better  grasses  may  be  substituted  for  it.  Paspalum 
compression  crowds  it  out  under  the  Hanalei  conditions.  Paspalum 
dilatatum  also  would  be  able  to  crowd  it  more  or  less  under  reasonable 
conditions  of  moisture.  This  grass  is  the  principal  grass  upon  the 
Wahiawa  plain  of  Oahu,  but  the  small  clover,  Desmodium  triflorum, 
occurring  with  it  furnishes  the  major  part  of  the  grazing. 

Paspalum  conjugatum,  Hilo  grass  (PL  II,  2),  is  a  native  of  tropical 
America.  It  appeared  near  Hilo  about  1840  and  spread  rapidly, 
crowding  out  many  better  grasses.  The  fact  that  it  is  less  palatable 
than  other  grasses  enables  it  to  crowd  them  out.  In  rainy  regions  or 
seasons  it  makes  a  heavy  growth.  It  is  liked  by  stock  only  when  kept 
closely  cropped.  The  larger  growth  during  wet  seasons  is  grazed,  but 
disturbs  the  digestion  of  cattle  if  eaten  in  quantity.  During  the  dry 
season  more  of  the  coarser  growth  is  consumed,  because  of  the  shortage 
of  other  food.  On  the  Parker  ranch  there  are  over  50,000  acres  of 
Hilo  grass.  It  is  valuable  in  helping  to  tide  over  the  period  when 
other  feed  is  wanting.  Better  feed  is  obtained  by  burning  off  the  old 
growth  whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

Under  fair  conditions  Paspalum  dilatatum  and  P.  compressum  will 
slowly  crowd  out  the  Hilo  grass.  While  Hilo  grass  is  of  value,  P. 
dilatatum  is  to  be  preferred  and  should  be  substituted  for  it  whenever 
the  conditions  will  permit.  Paspalum  orbiculare  (PL  H,  3),  rice 
grass,  mau-laiki,  occupies  large  areas  on  windward  slopes  and  also  at 
higher  elevations  on  the  lee  side  of  the  islands.  It  is  not  liked  by 
stock.  The  tender  growth  of  young  seedlings,  of  closely  cropped 
pastures,  or  after  burning,  is  better  relished.  The  grass  occurs  gen- 
erally throughout  the  guava  belt.  It  is  gathered  frequently  for  bed- 
ding or  packing  purposes.  It  is  known  as  cow  grass  in  Queensland 
and  as  ditch  millet  in  other  places.  Cases  of  poisoning  have  been 
known  in  India  from  eating  the  seed  of  this  grass.     The  milk  from 


15 

cows  grazed  on  it  is  said  to  be  narcotic  and  injurious.1  Some  of  the 
ranchers  of  Hawaii  consider  it  a  pest;  others  say  it  is  of  secondary 
value  for  the  maintenance  of  cattle  only. 

Paspalum  dilatatum  (PL  II,  1),  also  known  as  Australian  or  large 
water  grass,  is  a  native  of  South  America,  but  was  introduced  in  1903 
from  Australia,  where  it  has  been  grown  for  about  30  years.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  grasses  yet  introduced  into  Hawaii.  It  is  true 
that  Bermuda  grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  a  few  others,  occupy 
larger  areas,  but  probably  the  area  in  water  grass  will  ultimately 
exceed  the  areas  in  these  other  grasses. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  suited  to  high  elevations,  while  the  water 
grass  does  wTell  either  high  or  low.  The  same  objection  holds  against 
orchard  grass,  soft  meadow  grass,  and  others.  Bermuda  is  somewhat 
more  drought  resistant,  but  the  Paspalum  crowds  it  out  when  mois- 
ture is  more  available.  While  it  makes  little  or  no  growth  in  very 
dry  seasons,  it  does  not  die  out,  but  starts  up  with  the  first  good  rains. 

At  sea  level  on  the  leeward  coast,  this  grass  makes  fair  growth  only 
during  and  following  the  rainy  season.  The  same  may  be  said  of  it  in 
similar  situations  up  to  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  or  more.  Topog- 
raphy and  rainfall  determine  its  economic  value  rather  than  eleva- 
tion, while  with  many  introduced  grasses  elevation  is  the  important 
factor.  On  the  windward  slopes  its  value  is  likewise  determined 
by  the  amount  of  rainfall,  being  greater  where  the  rainfall  is  from  60 
to  120  inches  annually.  It  is  not  recommended  for  swampy  regions, 
but  rather  for  semihumid  conditions  above  elevations  of  1,000  or 
1,500  feet,  although  it  is  valuable  in  the  dry  sections  following  rainy 
seasons,  often  being  more  valuable  than  the  annual  grasses  or  weeds 
which  supply  feed  at  such  times. 

In  the  table  of  composition  the  high  nutritive  properties  of  water 
grass  as  shown  by  the  high  content  of  protein  and  fat  are  apparent. 
From  the  analyses  one  would  expect  that  this  would  be  a  most  excel- 
lent grass  for  growing  animals  and  keeping  them  in  good  condition 
at  all  times.  Kesults  show  this  to  be  true.  At  Princeville  plantation 
cattle  fatten  on  this  at  all  seasons.  Its  palatability  is  noteworthy. 
In  mixed  growths,  the  water  grass  is  kept  closely  cropped,  while 
Bermuda  and  other  grasses  are  allowed  to  grow  several  inches  high. 
Finer  grasses,  like  the  gramas,  are  grazed  even  more  closely  than 
water  grass  when  growing  side  by  side  and,  not  having  the  persistence 
of  the  water  grass,  gradually  give  w^ay  to  it. 

Under  good  conditions  it  is  possible  to  make  hay  from  this  grass 
as  well  as  to  use  it  for  soiling.  However,  because  of  its  habit  of 
growth,  it  is  very  difficult  to  mow  with  machine  or  scythe,  but  may 
be  cut  with  Japanese  grass  blades.     It  is  difficult  to  cure  because  of 

i  Maiden,  J.  H.    A  Manual  of  the  Grasses  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney,  1898,  p.  19. 
67092°— Bull.  36— 15 3 


16 

the  large  moisture  content,  and  the  hay  seems  to  be  much  less  palat- 
able than  the  fresh  grass.  Hence  this  grass  should  be  considered  as 
a  pasture  grass  only,  and  as  such  it  heads  the  list. 

The  plant  has  a  semispreading  habit  of  growth,  but  becomes  more 
upright  when  thickly  planted.  When  thinly  planted,  it  assumes  a 
more  trailing  habit,  and  sends  out  rootstocks  from  well  established 
isolated  plants.  It  spreads  slowly  from  a  rootstock  growing  just  at 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Thin  stands  thus  become  better  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years.  Water  grass  under  good  conditions  is  able  to  crowd 
out  Bermuda,  pilipiliula,  and  Hilo  grass.  Young  plants  seed  pro- 
fusely, but  the  seed  ripens  unevenly  even  in  the  same  seed  head, 
so  that  saving  seed  is  difficult  and  expensive.  Some  recommend 
shaking  the  seed  heads  over  a  pan  so  as  to  obtain  only  well  ripened 
seeds.  When  closely  grazed  little  or  no  seed  is  formed,  although 
an  effort  is  made  to  form  them  on  stems  which  extend  well  out  along 
the  ground  and  become  vertical  as  the  seed  head  emerges  from  the 
boot.  The  plants  may  seed  several  times  annually.  Some  who 
have  planted  seed  claim  poor  results,  only  25  per  cent  or  less  of  the 
seed  being  good.  In  planting,  6  to  10  pounds  per  acre  with  3 
pounds  of  some  more  rapidly  growing  grass  should  be  sown.  The  seed 
weighs  17  to  35  pounds  per  bushel,  good  seed  weighing  at  least  28 
pounds. 

The  point  to  remember  in  seeding  water  grass  is  that  germination 
requires  moisture  and  the  supply  must  hold  good  until  the  plants 
are  well  rooted,  as  the  young  seedlings  will  perish  if  the  soil  dries. 
When  this  happens,  the  failure  is  usually  accredited  to  poor  seed. 
The  seeds  should  be  covered  but  lightly,  and  a  stand  will  be  obtained 
much  sooner  if  covering  is  done,  as  the  seed  is  light.  In  well-pre- 
pared plowed  fields,  in  single  furrows  across  given  areas,  or  scattered 
along  trails,  over  sodded,  rocky,  or  other  areas,  some  results  may 
always  be  obtained.  More  immediate  results  are  obtained  from 
better  treatment,  but  it  often  happens  that  seed  remains  without 
germinating  for  several  months. 

The  best  plan  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  a  bed,  water  it,  and  transplant 
the  well-rooted  seedlings  to  the  paddocks.  Set  the  plants  in  checks 
2  feet  apart  each  way  or  in  single  lines  across  the  field  at  intervals  of 
2,  4,  6,  10,  or  20  feet  apart,  or  simply  plant  in  a  haphazard  manner 
here  and  there.  Old  plants  may  be  taken  up,  the  roots  divided  and 
planted  out  in  the  same  manner  as  seedlings.  Do  not  turn  cattle 
upon  newly  planted  fields. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  water  grass  varies  much.  In  Hawaii  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  a  different  capacity  for  each  square  mile 
of  pasture.  At  the  Princeville  plantation,  at  an  elevation  of  300  to 
800  feet,  with  60  to  1 00  inches  of  rain,  the  carrying  capacity  has  been 
'one  steer  per  acre  for  three  years  in  one  paddock  of  40  acres.     In  a 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  I. 


■**mm 


cc 
QQ 

< 

It 

h-  51 
id   d 

>o. 

< 

O  «> 
_J   3 

SI 

o  < 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  II. 


1,  Paspalum  dilatatum  (Australian   Water  Grass);   2,  Paspalum  conjugatum 
(Hilo  Grass);  3,  Paspalum  orbiculare  (Mau-laiki). 


17 

paddock  of  450  acres  500  head  were  carried  for  one  year,  then  180 
head  for  10  months,  then  after  2  months  100  head  were  turned  in. 
More  were  added  until  full  capacity  was  reached.  The  carrying 
capacity  varies  with  age  and  amount  of  growth  of  the  grasses  when 
the  cattle  are  turned  in,  and  also  with  precipitation. 

To  sum  up,  water  grass  is  one  of  the  best  grasses  introduced  into 
Hawaii.  It  is  valued  (1)  for  its  ability  to  grow  under  varied  con- 
d;tions  of  soil,  moisture,  or  elevation;  (2)  it  is  easy  to  establish  from 
seil  or  by  division  of  the  roots;  (3)  for  its  drought  resistance;  (4) 
for  its  persistence — its  ability  to  survive  overstocking;  (5)  for  its 
palatability  and  nutritive  properties;  and  (6)  for  the  large  amount  of 
feed  it  produces  and  because  it  seeds  freely. 

Paspalum  lirgatum  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding  and  of  about 
equal  value.  It  has  been  tried  on  Maui,  and  more  extensively  on 
Kauai,  where  it  has  been  planted  over  a  500-acre  paddock  (on  Prince- 
ville  plantation)  in  a  mixture  with  P.  dihtatum  and  P.  compressum. 
The  seed  is  high  in  price,  but  as  the  plant  seeds  profusely,  the  area 
could  be  rapidly  extended  from  a  small  first  planting.  The  seeds 
have  great  vitality  and  will  remain  in  the  soil  until  the  conditions 
for  germination  are  favorable. 

This  grass  is  vigorous  in  its  growth,  holding  its  own  against  native 
or  Hilo  grasses.  Whether  it  will  be  as  persistent  as  P.  dilatotum 
under  conditions  of  overstocking  or  during  long  periods  of  drought 
is  not  definitely  known.  It  is  more  erect  in  growth  than  the  other 
species  and  is  therefore  a  better  forage  or  soiling  grass.  Several 
cuttings  annually  may  be  made  if  moisture  conditions  are  always 
favorable.     The  grass  may  be  propagated  by  root  division. 

Paspalum  compressum,  now  known  as  Axonopus  compressus,  Lou- 
isiana, carpet,  or  Gazon  grass,  is  quite  common  in  the  South,  and  is 
considered  valuable,  especially  on  poor  lands.  It  is  creeping  in  its 
habit  of  growth,  making  a  fair  lawn  if  kept  closely  clipped,  but  is  of 
no  value  for  hay.  It  thrives  better  in  moist  situations  and  suffers 
from  continued  drought.  It  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock  and 
stands  grazing  and  tramping  well.  It  spreads  by  runners  and  by 
seed,  and  under  moist  conditions  will  crowd  out  many  other  grass*  a. 
In  s'outhwest  Texas  it  is  said  to  have  revolutionized  the  stock  industry. 

In  Hawaii  the  grass  is  favorably  reported  from  Princeville  planta- 
tion, Kauai.  There  it  crowds  out  Hilo  grass,  pilipiliula,  and  all 
Is,  and  grasses  except  P.  d'datatum  and  P.  clrgatum.  It  becomes 
Lormant  in  dry  weather,  but  starts  up  with  the  first  rains.  It  was 
closely  grazed,  but  survived  and  started  up  well  when  the  cattle 
veve  taken  off.     The  seeds,  it  was  thought,  were  scattered  by  rice 

irds,  as  plants  were  found  2  miles  from  the  original  planting.  Like 
he  two  preceding  species,  some  time  and  much  moisture  are  required 


18 

to  start  the  seeds  and  the  grass  comes  up  long  after  one  has  despaired 
of  it  and  given  a  verdict  of  ''bad  seed." 

Judging  from  one  season's  trial  at  the  experiment  station  it  is 
fully  as  drought  resistant  as  P.  dilatatum,  but  under  these  conditions 
is  much  less  vigorous  in  its  growth,  and  although  it  spreads  more 
rapidly  because  of  its  creeping  stems  or  runners,  it  furnishes  less  feed 
than  P.  dilatatum.  Were  it  strong  enough  to  crowd  out  the  latter 
grass,  the  advisability  of  planting  it  might  be  questioned,  but  as  it 
has  not  done  this,  it  seems  to  be  of  value  and  may  be  planted  in 
mixtures. 

Holcus  lanatus,  velvet  grass,  meadow  soft  grass,  or  Yorkshire  fog, 
commonly  called  mesquite  in  Hawaii,  is,  according  to  M.  J.  Sutton,1 
"one  of  the  most  persistent  and  troublesome  of  the  worthless  grasses, 
possessing  structural  endowments  which  insure  its  continued  exist- 
ence under  extremely  varied  conditions."  These  " endowments," 
however,  make  the  grass  of  value  in  Hawaii.  At  elevations  of  from 
4,000  to  7,000  feet  this  becomes  one  of  the  main  pasture  grasses. 
It  is  able  to  withstand  drought  and  frost.  It  thrives  also  under 
better  moisture  conditions. 

In  Australia  the  grass  is  little  liked,  and  in  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton it  occurs  as  a  weed  among  better  meadow  grasses.  While  no 
doubt  of  less  value  than  Kentucky  blue  grass  or  orchard  grass,  at 
certain  seasons  in  Hawaiian  pastures  it  is  of  great  value  in  mixtures, 
and  at  the  higher  elevations  particularly. 

Poa  pratensis,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  by 
Captain  Makee  at  Ulupalakua  about  1879  or  1880.  This  grass  is 
one  of  the  principal  pasture  grasses  of  the  humid  portion  of  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  other  countries,  and  its  value  is  too 
well  known  to  require  comment.  It  is  persistent  against  drought 
or  overstocking,  becomes  green  and  grows  with  the  first  rains,  but 
becomes  dry  and  brown  during  the  hot,  dry  months.  Stock  on 
blue-grass  pasture  require  other  feed  at  such  times  to  obtain  best 
results.  This  grass  occupies  considerable  areas  in  Hawaii,  between 
4,000  and  6,000  feet  in  elevation  on  Ulupalakua,  Haleakala,  Parker 
ranch,  Humuula,  Puuwaawaa,  and  in  the  Konas.  It  furnishes 
grazing  for  about  four  or  five  months  and  carries  one  head  for  every 
3  or  4  acres  for  that  length  of  time.  Wherever  found  it  is  a  fine 
fattening  grass. 

Dactylis  glomerata,  orchard  or  cocksfoot  grass,  occupies  large  areas 
in  Hawaii  at  elevations  of  4,000  to  6,000  feet.  It  is  a  large,  coarse 
grass,  occurs  in  clumps  rather  than  in  an  even  sod,  does  not  spread, 
and  is  of  slightly  less  value  than  Kentucky  blue  grass  for  fattening, 
although  it  is  a  palatable,  nutritious  grass.  It  also  becomes  dry 
and  brown  during  times  of  drought,  but  there  is  some  feed  available 

1  Permanent  and  Temporary  Pastures.    London,  1902,  6th  ed.,  p.  150. 


19 

from  this  grass  at  such  times.  The  name  orchard  grass  was  applied 
to  it  because  of  its  general  use  in  orchards.  It  makes  an  excellent 
nurse  crop  for  Paspalum  dilatatum.  It  spreads  chiefly  from  seed 
and  is  easily  crowded  out  by  Hilo  grass,  especially  when  closely  grazed. 

Lolium  perenne,  perennial  rye  grass,  is  rarely  perennial  in  Hawaii. 
It  is  adapted  to  the  higher  pastures  (4,000  to  6,500  feet),  where  it 
furnishes  good  grazing.  It  will  withstand  any  amount  of  treading 
and  grazing,  but  dies  out  gradually  in  periods  of  drought.  At 
medium  elevations  it  would  likely  prove  a  good  nurse  crop  for  Pas- 
palum dilatatum.  It  is  recommended  for  all  mixtures  for  permanent 
pastures. 

Bromus  unioloides,  rescue  grass,  Australian  prairie  grass,  Schrader's 
brome  grass,  is  classed  as  a  perennial,  but  becomes  annual  under 
unfavorable  conditions.  It  grows  well  at  lower  elevations  only 
during  the  cooler  months,  but  seeds  abundantly,  and  young  plants 
are  found  the  following  year.  However,  it  makes  its  best  growth 
at  higher  elevations  with  lower  temperatures.  It  is  not  injured  by 
frost  and  is  valuable  near  the  frost  line  on  the  mountain  pastures 
of  Hawaii.  It  is  shallow  rooted,  and  large  clumps  are  easily  up- 
rooted by  live  stock,  but  under  continual  grazing  or  when  in  mix- 
tures with  other  grasses,  this  objection  is  not  so  great.  At  medium 
elevations  on  the  Parker  ranch  isolated  patches  of  this  grass  may 
be  seen,  single  small  seed  heads  appearing  a  few  inches  above  the 
Bermuda  sod.  It  is  reported  to  have  crowded  out  several  thousand 
acres  of  manienie  in  the  last  28  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Wood's 
ranch,  Kohala,  Hawaii.  According  to  the  analysis  its  nutritive  value 
is  very  high. 

Korteria  glomerata,  mountain  pili,  is  the  principal  indigenous  grass 
occurring  at  high  elevations.  It  is  found  covering  large  areas  on 
the  higher  lands  of  Parker's,  Hind's,  Shipman's,  and  other  ranches 
of  Hawaii.  Rock  states  that  he  has  found  it  at  elevations  above 
8,000  feet,  and  that  it  is  about  the  last  species  observed  in  ascending 
the  mountains.1 

Calamagrostis  forsteri,  heupuueo,  is  an  annual,  appearing  at  ele- 
vations above  2,000  feet  following  the  rainy  season.  During  the 
dry  season,  or  after  the  seed  has  fallen,  the  dry,  naked,  open  panicle 
becomes  conspicuous.  These  empty  panicles,  driven  by  the  wind, 
often  collect  in  strawlike  masses  at  the  base  of  guava  or  other 
shrubs.  The  feeding  value  is  fairly  high;  the  grass  is  palatable  and 
nutritious.  It  remains  green  for  but  a  few  months.  This  grass  is 
quite  widely  distributed. 

Festuca  myurus,  rat-tail  fescue,  occurs  at  elevations  of  2,000  feet 
and  above.  The  seed  heads  are  conspicuous  when  standing  out 
above    the    manienie   or   pilipiliula   sod.      The   leaf   is  narrow   and 

1  Rock,  J.  F.    The  Indigenous  Trees  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.    Honolulu,  1913,  p.  47. 


20 


appears  to  be  nearly  round.  The  grass  is  widely  distributed  at  me- 
dium and  high  elevations  and  is  of  but  medium  value  as  a  forage 
crop.  It  persists  long  and  does  not  appear  to  be  grazed  when  the 
seed  is  maturing. 

Briza  minor,  quaking  grass,  occurs  also  at  upper  medium  eleva- 
tions and  more  thickly  in  regions  of  frequent  showers  and  where 
the  rainfall  is  heavy  and  continuous.  It  has  some  feeding  value, 
but  is  crowded  out  on  grazing  lands  by  Hilo  grass,  or  maulaiki. 

Cynodon  dactylon,  Bermuda  grass  (PL  I,  1)  is  a  much-prized 
as  well  as  a  much-abused  grass,  which  occupies  large  areas  of  the 
pasture  lands  of  Hawaii.  It  was  introduced  about  1835  and  covers 
a  greater  area  than  any  other  one  grass.  The  native  grasses  and 
the  majority  of  the  tame  grasses  spring  up  with  the  rains,  nourish 
for  a  time,  and  with  the  coming  of  the  dry  season  disappear,  while 
the  manienie  survives  the  severest  drought;  although  in  the  most 
severe  ones  it  may  make  no  active  growth  for  a  long  period.  Many 
perennials  succumb  to  bad  treatment,  but  this  grass,  no  matter 
how  much  abused,  or  how  long  the  drought  may  continue,  springs 
up  at  once  when  conditions  improve. 

Manienie  spreads  by  creeping  rootstocks  which  throw  up  stems 
from  each  joint,  and  also  by  running  stems  above  the  ground  which 
root  at  each  joint.  It  also  spreads  by  seed.  It  is  usually  propagated 
by  cutting  sods  into  small  pieces,  which  are  then  set  out  2  feet  apart 
each  way  in  the  fields  where  desired.  A  field  planted  in  this  manner 
will  soon  be  covered. 

It  is  not  a  hay  grass  in  Hawaii.  Bermuda  grass  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  lawn  grasses  for  hot  climates.  It  is  of  great  value 
as  a  soil-binding  grass  and  is  planted  along  terraces  on  hilly  land, 
dikes,  or  rice  fields,  and  upon  the  sands  of  the  seashore.  On  Lanai 
5,000  acres  of  wind-eroded  soil  was  saved  by  planting  Bermuda 
grass.  Its  composition  and  digestibility  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

Composition  and  digestibility  of  Bermuda  grass. 


Bermuda 
grass.1 

Bermuda  hay,  first 
year  after  planting.2 

Bermuda  hay.3 

Compo- 
sition. 

Compo- 
sition. 

Digesti- 
bility. 

Compo- 
sition. 

Digesti- 
bility. 

Protein 

Per  cent. 

6.86 

.58 

22.93 

59.84 

9.83 

Per  cent. 
18.72 
2.49 
21.57 
40.71 
9.13 
7.38 

Per  cent. 
64.19 
39.69 
58.93 
52.71 
41.68 

Per  cent. 
6.43 
1.60 
27.62 
46.70 
7.88 
9.74 

Per  cent. 
48.80 

Fat                                           

46.90 

Fiber    .                         

50.80 

50.20 

Ash   

28.00 

Water                                     

1  Hawaii  Sta.  Bui.  13.    The  analysis  is  given  for  the  water-free  material.    The  fresh  material  contains 
about  45  per  cent  of  water. 

2  Oklahoma  Sta.  Bui.  90.    Analyses  in  the  second  and  third  years  showed  a  reduction  in  the  protein 
Content  to  11.9  and  an  incfease  in  the  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract.    . 

a  Texas  Sta.  Bui.  147. 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  III. 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  IV. 


1,  Panicum    pruriens   (Kukaipuaa);  2,  ELEUSINE  /EQYPTIACA;  3,    Eleusine  indica 

(Yard  Grass). 


, 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  manienie  has  a  fairly  good  com- 
position, but  that  the  digestibility  is  rather  low.  The  Oklahoma  analy- 
ses indicate  that  young  plants  produce  more  nutritious  feed  than 
older  ones.  The  feeding  value  often  coincides  with  the  palatability. 
It  is  well  known  that  manienie  is  more  relished  by  live  stock  when  it 
is  kept  closely  grazed. 

The  objections  to  manienie  are  that  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate  when 
firmly  established,  it  spreads  too  rapidly  in  cultivated  fields,  and  it  is 
not  sufficiently  nutritious.  It  is  good  for  maintenance,  less  so  for 
growth,  and  of  little  value  for  fattening  unless  the  cattle  have  access 
to  other  feed.  Horses  seem  to  keep  in  better  condition  upon  it  than 
do  cattle.  Another  objection  to  it  is  that  in  dry  seasons  it  may  cause 
the  loss  of  many  animals  through  a  form  of  "staggers."  Cattle  should 
have  access  to  water  when  pastured  on  dry  Bermuda;  hence  moun- 
tain cattle  unused  to  water  sometimes  suffer  from  this  disease. 

Panicum  crus-galli  or  Echinochloa  crus-galli  (PI.  Ill,  3),  barnyard 
grass,  is  a  coarse  weedy  grass  in  rice  and  taro  fields  and  along  irriga- 
tion ditches.  When  in  sufficient  amounts  it  is  cut  and  used  for  green 
feed.  With  the  ratoons  of  the  rice  crop,  it  affords  considerable  graz- 
ing for  the  water  buffalo  and  other  draft  animals  of  the  rice  planters. 

Panicum  frumentaceum  or  Echinochloa  frumentacea  (cultivated  in 
India  as  grain)  is  another  species  occurring  with  the  above  and  not 
distinguishable  from  it  except  by  botanists.  There  are  several  varie- 
ties of  the  barnyard  grass  itself,  the  variations  being  in  botanical 
characters  mainly.  It  is  a  widely  distributed  species,  and  although  it 
becomes  a  weed  in  tilled  fields  it  is  easily  kept  in  control.  It  some- 
times produces  a  hay  crop  after  the  removal  of  a  cultivated  crop.  It 
is  a  very  nutritious  grass,  being  rich  in  protein  and  fat. 

Panicum  colonum  or  Echinochloa  colona  (PL  III,  2)  is  also  similar 
to  the  barnyard  grass  and  is  often  found  with  it.  This  species  is 
smaller,  however,  and  prefers  less  moist  situations.  It  springs  up 
after  rains  and  furnishes  grazing  for  a  short  time  only,  as  it  soon  seeds 
and  dies  down.  It  occurs  abundantly  in  wide  rocky  gulches  or  val- 
leys on  Molokai  at  low  elevations.  There  it  is  known  as  "six-weeks" 
grass,  but  in  other  countries  it  is  called  jungle  rice. 

ChsetocTdoa  verticillata  (PI.  I,  2),  or  bristly  foxtail  grass,  occurs 
plentifully  about  Honolulu.  It  grows  very  rapidly  after  good  rains, 
and  is  cut  by  many  of  the  dairymen  and  used  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  is 
considered  equal,  or  superior,  to  Para  grass  for  milk  production.  The 
mature  grass  is  of  less  value.  Horses  do  not  seem  to  like  it.  It  is  a 
troublesome  weed  in  cultivated  fields  where  the  seed  is  always  pres- 
ent, ready  to  spring  up  when  moisture  is  supplied.  The  beards  have 
a  hook  or  barb,  and  when  the  heads  are  mature  they  cling  to  manes 
and  tails  of  animals  or  to  the  clothes  of  any  one  passing  and  are  thus 
distributed. 


22 

Ohsetochloa  glauca  is  a  pest  over  several  hundreds  of  acres  near 
Lihue,  Kauai,  and  occurs  in  less  amounts  upon  various  Kauai  ranches. 
Attempts  are  being  made  to  eradicate  it.  The  seed  was  introduced 
in  hay  from  California.  The  grass  has  little  forage  value,  and  it  is 
not  very  well  liked  by  live  stock.  In  cultivated  fields  it  is  difficult  to 
eradicate.  It  springs  up  after  the  crops  are  laid  by,  seeds  so  abun- 
dantly, and  the  seeds  retain  their  vitality  so  long  that  the  land  seems 
to  be  irredeemably  foul. 

Hordeum  murinum,  wall  barley,  known  on  the  Parker  ranch  as 
California  grass,  because  it  was  introduced  in  California  hay,  occurs 
on  many  ranches  and  plantations  and  furnishes  considerable  feed. 
It  is  quite  palatable  and  is  grazed  more  or  less  closely  until  the  heads 
appear,  when  it  is  objectionable  to  the  stock  on  account  of  the  long 
beards.  It  is  a  low-growing  grass,  closely  resembling  bearded  barley 
in  appearance.  It  grows  best  where  it  receives  the  benefit  of  surface 
drainage  or  subirrigation. 

Panicum  pruriens  (PI.  IV,  1),  kukaipuaa,  crab  grass,  and  Syn- 
therisma  sanguinalis,  kukaipuaa,  or  crab  grass,  and  S.  helleri  are 
considered  identical  by  all  of  the  ranchmen.  Kukaipuaa  is  the  name 
applied  to  annual  species,  which  are  weeds  in  cultivated  fields,  but 
which  furnish  a  very  valuable  feed  in  the  paddocks.  If  allowed  to 
grow  undisturbed  the  reclining  stems  root  at  several  joints  from  the 
central  crown,  then  become  vertical,  and  bloom.  The  seed  head  is 
"crowfoot"  in  shape,  like  that  of  manienie  and  yard  grass.  Kukaipuaa 
is  very  nutritious.  With  various  annual  weeds  it  becomes  an  impor- 
tant fattening  feed  in  paddocks  where  perennial  grasses  do  not  thrive. 
It  occurs  at  all  elevations  and  under  all  degrees  of  rainfall.  It  was 
formerly  abundant  in  Puna,  but  has  been  crowded  out  by  Hilo  grass. 

Eleusine  indica  (PL  IV,  3),  manienie  alii,  and  E.  segyptiaca,  yard 
grasses,  crowfoot,  or  goose  grasses  are  drought-resistant  grasses 
occurring  widely  over  the  Territory.  E.  indica  is  a  pest  in  the  lawns 
and  along  the  roadsides  of  Honolulu.  On  Molokai  it  is  a  weed  in  the 
alfalfa  fields.  It  is  a  tough  grass  well  liked  by  horses  and  cattle. 
It  is  valuable  on  extremely  dry  ranges  or  along  and  above  the  algaroba 
belts.  The  toughness  of  the  stems  is  overbalanced  by  its  good 
seeding,  persistence,  palatability,  nutritiousness,  and  drought-  resisting 
qualities.     It  is  rather  coarse  and  has  a  typical  " crowfoot "  seed  head. 

Panicum  torridum,  kakonakona,  is  a  valuable  annual  grass  occurring 
at  low  elevations  during  and  following  the  rainy  season.  It  is  very 
fattening,  and  well  liked  by  live  stock.  It  is  the  main  fattening  grass 
on  the  lower  elevations  of  dry  ranches.  It  is  reported  as  an  excellent 
grass  on  Molokai,  Ulupalakua,  Cornwell,  and  Haleakala  ranches,  and 
is  of  value  in  other  locations.  It  occurs  mixed  with  other  annual 
grasses  and  weeds.     The  only  objection  to  it  is  its  short  season  of 


23 

growth.  However,  it  materially  helps  out  in  the  feed  problem  on 
lands  where  perennial  grasses  do  not  thrive  or  are  not  yet  established. 

Cenclirus  echinatus  (PI.  V,  2),  umealu,  sandbur,  is  well  dis- 
tributed up  to  about  4,000  feet,  but  occurs  in  thicker  stands  below 
1,000  or  1,200  feet  elevation.  While  the  grass  is  young  it  furnishes 
excellent  feed,  but  when  the  burs  are  forming  it  is  of  no  value.  The 
burs  are  troublesome,  particularly  in  the  wool  of  sheep.  Neverthe- 
less, the  grass  is  highly  valued  on  some  of  the  sheep  ranches,  though 
it  causes  some  loss  through  the  reduced  price  received  for  the  wool. 
It  is  valuable  on  the  lower  dry  lands  where  perennial  grasses  do  not 
thrive,  along  with  kakonakona  and  other  annuals.  It  is  very  drought- 
resistant  and  prefers  sandy,  dry  locations.  It  has  been  widely 
scattered  in  baled  alfalfa  hay.  Because  of  its  ability  to  withstand 
dry  conditions,  and  reseed  itself  in  spite  of  heavy  grazing,  and  because 
of  its  longer  season  of  growth  it  is  recommended  for  feed  on  lands 
where  better  grasses  will  not  grow. 

Panicum  barbinode,  Para  grass  (PI.  VI,  fig.  1),  has  become  generally 
known  in  Hawaii  as  " panicum"  grass.1  This  grass  was  introduced 
from  Fiji  in  1902,  and  was  soon  well  distributed  over  the  islands.  As 
it  does  not  seed  profusely  it  is  propagated  entirely  by  sections  of  the 
long  jointed  stems  which  strike  root  readily  when  embedded  in  damp 
soil.  Because  of  the  trailing  habit  of  growth  of  these  stems,  the  grass 
will  soon  occupy  a  field  even  when  thinly  planted.  As  the  roots 
are  shallow,  the  grass  can  easily  be  eradicated  when  not  wanted. 

The  grass  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  Hawaii  under  heavy  rainfall  or 
irrigation  as  a  green  soiling  crop  for  horses  and  dairy  cattle.  No 
attempt  at  haymaking  is  made.  As  a  pasture  grass  it  is  used  to 
some  extent,  but  reports  as  to  its  value  are  rather  meager.  It  is 
palatable,  fairly  nutritious,  although  somewhat  coarse  and  fibrous. 
It  does  not  stand  pasturing  well.  All  the  good  results  with  Para 
grass  are  reported  from  low,  wet  lands,  and  failures  from  high,  dry 
lands. 

Panicum  grass  is  primarily  a  wet-land  grass  and  requires  an  abun- 
dance of  water.  Even  an  excess  of  water  will  not  injure  it,  and  it  can 
be  planted  in  marshy  places  where  other  grasses  would  not  thrive. 
Semimarshy  lands  are  often  dried  out  by  planting  Para  grass  upon 
them,  thus  making  them  less  dangerous  as  places  for  the  miring  of 
stock.     The  grass  is  not  killed  by  overflows. 

The  yields  obtained  vary  with  the  fertility  and  moisture.  At  the 
Glenwood  substation,  with  heavy  rainfall,  and  where  the  manure  was 
returned  to  the  plat,  a  yield  at  the  rate  of  31  tons  per  acre  of  green 
forage  in  four  cuttings  was  obtained  within  nine  months  of  planting. 
At  Hanalei  four  or  five  crops  per  year  afe  obtained,  the  grass  being 

1  Hawaii.  Forester  and  Agr.,  4  (1907),  p.  277. 


24 

cut  up  with  Guinea  grass  for  horses  and  mules.     Good  results  have 
been  obtained  by  top-dressing  with  stable  manure  or  bone  meal. 

Melinis  minutifiora,  molasses  or  Brazilian  grass  (PI.  VII,  fig.  1), 
seed  of  which  was  recently  received  from  Washington,  grows  very 
slowly.  It  bloomed  during. November.  A  portion  of  the  plants  cut 
back  in  July  ratooned  well.  The  habit  of  growth  of  this  grass  resem- 
bles that  of  Para  grass. 

CMoris  gayana,  0.  virgata,  Rhodes  grass  (PL  VIII,  2) ,  native  of  South 
Africa,  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  from  Australia  in  1904.  From 
the  small  area  sown  that  year  on  Molokai  ranch,  seed  was  saved  and 
another  planting  made  the  following  year,  and  the  area  gradually 
extended.  Forty  acres  are  now  in  Rhodes  grass  on  Molokai,  and  the 
same  area  on  the  Parker  ranch.  These  are  the  largest  and  most 
successful  experiments  which  have  been  made  with  Rhodes  grass  in 
the  Territory.  Considerable  quantities  of  the  seed  have  been  scat- 
tered in  other  places  upon  these  and  other  ranches. 

The  grass  is  one  of  the  best  drought-resistant  species  ever  tried 
here.  It  is  suited  to  medium  elevations  on  leeward  slopes.  It  has 
an  upright  habit  of  growth,  forming  the  seed  head  at  from  2  to  4£ 
feet.  In  moist  locations  the  plants  stool.  The  outside  stems  are 
nearly  horizontal  at  first,  then  becoming  vertical  to  throw  out  the 
flower  stalk.  These  stems  often  root  at  the  joints.  Another  habit 
of  growth  noticeable  in  newly  planted  fields  and  where  the  plants 
are  not  crowded  is  the  formation  of  runners  extending  as  far  as  6 
to  8  feet  from  the  parent  plant.     These  runners  root  at  the  joints. 

This  is  a  valuable  grass  for  haymaking  purposes,  and  it  is  about 
the  only  grass  cured  for  hay  in  Hawaii.  The  stems  are  small  and 
cure  readily.  The  best  hay  is  made  when  the  grass  is  cut  in  early 
bloom,  since  the  stems  become  woody  and  tough  if  the  seed  is  allowed 
to  mature.  On  a  Molokai  ranch  meadow,  five  cuttings  have  been 
obtained  annually,  the  yields  averaging  now  about  one-third  of  a  ton 
per  cutting.  The  stand  is  thinner  than  formerly  and  the  yields 
are  less  than  were  at  first  obtained.  Apparently  rotation  of  crops 
is  as  necessary  with  Rhodes  grass  meadows  as  it  is  with  timothy 
and  other  meadows  elsewhere.  At  the  Glenwood  substation  this 
grass  failed  to  ratoon  when  cut. 

As  a  pasture  grass  Rhodes  grass  has  not  been  a  complete  success. 
This  failure  is  due  principally  to  poor  quality  of  seed,  to  the  neces- 
sity for  a  perfect  seed  bed,  to  its  shallow  root  system,  and  possibly 
to  the  fact  that  the  cattle  are  too  fond  of  it  and  graze  it  too  closely 
or  pull  it  up.  On  the  Molokai  ranch  the  sweepings  from  the  haymows 
and  seed  otherwise  collected  have  been  sown,  and  yet  there  is  prac- 
tically no  Rhodes  grass  to«be  seen  upon  the  range  to-day. 

On  Haleakala  ranch,  where  Rhodes  grass  and  water  grass  were 
planted  on  old  cornlands  which  were  later  opened  to  grazing,   the 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  V. 


1.  Andropogon  contortus  (Pili);  2,  Cenchrus  echinatus  (Umealu);  3,  Eragrostis 

unioloides;  4,  Eragrostis  plumosa. 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt  Station. 


Plate  VI. 


Fig.  1.— Panicum  barbinode  (Para  Grass  or  Panicum). 


Fig.  2.— Panicum  maximum  (Guinea  Grass). 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 

Plate  VII. 

^Ammp' 

^^K*<^^^HH 

- 

n 

Fig.  1.— Melinis  minutiflora  (Molasses  Gra 

[Planted  Feb.  18,  photographed  Dec.  18,  1913.] 


Fig.  2.— Andropogon  sorghum  Varieties  (a,  Sudan  Grass;  b,  Tunis  Grass). 

[Photographed  07  days  from  planting.] 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station 


Plate  VIM. 


1,  Chloris  radiata;  2,  Chloris  gayana  (Rhodes  Grass);  3,  Chloris  elegans. 


25 

water  grass  is  abundant  while  but  few  of  the  old  stumps  of  Rhodes 
gni^s  remain. 

The  establishment  of  a  Rhodes-grass  pasture  depends  on  good  seed, 
thorough  preparation  of  the  land,  protection  from  stock  until  the 
grass  is  well  rooted,  prevention  of  overgrazing,  and  allowing  the 
-  opportunity  to  recover  at  certain  intervals.  It  requires  the  same 
care  as  does  pili  grass.  Rhodes  grass  is  giving  the  best  results  on 
Molokai,  Lanai,  leeward  parts  of  Maui,  and  of  Hawaii. 

The  feeding  value  of  Rhodes  grass  is  medium,  being  superior  to 
Guinea,  Xatal  redtop,  and  some  others,  though  inferior  to  water 
grass,  rescue  grass,  and  others,  as  shown  in  the  table  of  composition. 
It  is  of  less  value  for  fattening  than  for  maintenance  or  growth. 

The  seed  is  worth  30  to  40  cents  per  pound,  and  2  pounds  are 
said  to  be  enough  for  an  acre.  The  difficulties  in  obtaining  a  stand 
have  already  been  mentioned.  Good  seed  must  be  secured  and 
planted  under  good  conditions.  Broadcasting  upon  unprepared 
fields  is  a  waste  of  time  and  seed.  At  the  experiment  station  no 
dependence  is  placed  on  seed,  but  additional  areas  are  planted  by 
dividing  the  roots  of  old  plants.  Mr.  James  Munro,  of  Molokai,  is 
authority  for  the  statement  that  seed  saved  when  the  first  leaf  below 
the  seed  head  is  yellowing  will  be  good  seed.  Seed  from  young 
plants  is  better  filled  out  and  heavier  than  that  from  older  plants. 
Further  study  of  the  quality  of  seed  should  be  made. 

Panicum  maximum,  Guinea  grass  (PI.  VI,  fig.  2),  is  an  African  grass, 
well  distributed  over  the  West  Indian  Islands.  It  is  propagated 
readily  by  seed,  or  by  division  of  the  roots  (or  by  transplanting 
seedlings).  It  differs  from  Para  grass  in  its  habit  of  growth  and  in 
preferring  better  drained  soils,  but,  like  Para  grass,  it  is  used  prin- 
cipally as  a  soiling  crop  and  makes  better  yields  when  well  irrigated 
and  fertilized.  It  has  an  upright  habit  of  growth  and  attains  a 
height  of  6  to  10  feet.  When  to  be  cut  up  for  feed  this  maximum 
growth  may  be  allowed,  but  when  fed  without  running  through  a 
feed  cutter  (particularly  to  horses)  more  frequent  cutting  is  preferable, 
as  the  grass  becomes  coarse  at  the  base.  The  slow  growth  made 
during  a  dry  season  is  tough  and  unpalatable.  It  should  be  cut 
from  four  to  eight  times  annually,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  seed, 
if  the  best  quality  of  feed  is  desired. 

Roots  or  seedlings  are  planted  2  feet  apart  in  the  row,  in  rows  5 
feet  apart,  fertilized  and  irrigated.  Since  it  is  a  bunch  grass  it  can 
not  readily  be  cut  with  a  machine,  and  is  of  value  only  on  small  areas 
where  hand  cutting  is  economical.  It  is  not  recommended  in  Hawaii 
as  a  pasture  gr;t 

At  Princeville  plantation,  on  Kauai,  16  acres  of  Guinea  and  4  acres 
of  Para  grasses  are  required  to  carry  40  head  of  mules  and  horses. 
The  Guinea  grass  grows  slowly  during  the  winter  months  and  the 


26 

manager  plans  to  have  a  full  growth  by  October  1  as  a  reserve  on 
which  to  draw  during  those  months. 

Tricholsena  rosea,  Natal  redtop,  is  another  African  grass  which 
has  been  well  tried  out  in  the  Territory.  It  is  primarily  a  hay  grass, 
but  has  some  value  for  grazing.  Much  of  the  seed  to  be  had  is  not 
good.  When  started,  however,  it  grows  rapidly  and  stools  wonder- 
fully. Seed  was  planted  on  a  plat  at  the  experiment  station  in 
November,  1912,  and  three  months  later  the  plants  were  over  2  feet 
high  and  blooming.  One  month  later  isolated  plants  showed  over 
300  flowering  stems.  The  young  growth  is  tender,  but  the  old 
stems  are  wiry  and  tough.  The  grass  ratoons  readily  if  there  is  suffi- 
cient moisture  present  to  start  growth,  and  may  make  four  to  six 
crops  annually.  It  is  easily  cut  and  cured  for  hay,  but  according  to 
the  composition,  it  is  rather  poor  in  quality. 

On  the  Molokai  ranch  Mr.  Munro  observed  that  this  grass  seeded 
heavily  at  the  beginning  and  close  of  the  rainy  season  and  would 
not  stand  close  grazing  in  the  paddocks.  The  writer  observed  that 
practically  all  of  the  Natal  redtop  was  in  protected  or  inaccessible 
places,  and  that  it  did  not  withstand  grazing.  On  the  Haleakala 
ranch  it  occurs  more  frequently  than  upon  Molokai  and  is  valued 
for  semidry  places  of  medium  elevation.  At  Princeville  plantation 
the  greatest  value  was  obtained  when  planted  with  Paspalum  dilata- 
tum,  to  furnish  early  feed  until  the  latter  became  established.  As 
a  pasture  grass  Natal  redtop  is  recommended  for  dry  or  semidry 
locations  (or  for  a  nurse  crop  for  water  grass  in  humid  sections)  of 
medium  to  low  elevation.  It  should  never  be  overstocked  and 
should  be  allowed  a  period  of  rest  for  recuperation  and  seeding,  as 
is  recommended  for  Rhodes  grass  and  pili. 

Andropogon  sericeus,  Australian  blue  grass,  is  perhaps  the  best  of 
the  Australian  blue  grasses.  It  closely  resembles  Natal  redtop  until 
headed  out.  It  is  a  soft-bearded  grass,  with  good  seeding  habits  and 
easily  established.  It  is  slightly  superior  to  Natal  redtop  in  com- 
position and  will  apparently  outyield  it.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  a  hay 
grass,  "  valuable  alike  for  pasture  and  for  hay,  very  fattening,  and 
much  liked  by  stock  of  all  kinds."1  It  has  not  been  tried  out  as  a 
pasture  grass  in  Hawaii,  but  from  its  similarity  to  Natal  redtop  it 
should  probably  succeed  under  the  same  treatment  as  recommended 
for  that  grass. 

Andropogon  saccharoides ,  feather  blue  stem,  feather  sedge,  or  fuzzy 
top  grass,  is  found  on  Molokai  and  Niihau  ranches,  and  on  the  leeward 
side  of  Kauai. 

Andropogon  (Heteropogori)  contortus,  twisted  beard  grass,  tangle 
head,  pili,  is  well  known,  being  widely  distributed.     It  occurs  from 

1  Maiden,  J.  II.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  78. 


27 

sea  level  to  nearly  5.000  feet,  although  it  thrives  best  below  about 
1,500  feet. 

It  formerly  covered  larger  areas  than  at  present,  but  has  been 
destroyed  or  crowded  out  by  overstocking  and  by  the  encroaching  of 
Hilo,  manienie,  pilipiliula,  and  other  grasses.  The  old  Hawaiians 
utilized  this  grass  in  making  their  grass  houses.  There  are  extensive 
areas  of  it  on  western  Molokai,  on  Lanai,  in  the  valleys  of  Maui,  and 
on  leeward  Hawaii.  Over  large  areas  in  other  regions  the  pili  has 
been  nearly  eradicated  and  it  is  only  in  the  inaccessible  places  along 
the  sides  of  steep  gulches  that  occasional  clumps  may  be  seen.  The 
grass  makes  a  rapid  growth,  starting  up  with  the  first  good  showers, 
but  after  seeding  it  becomes  dry  and  brown.  It  may  seed  at  irregu- 
lar intervals,  depending  upon  the  distribution  and  amount  of  rainfall. 
The  green  growth  is  tender  and  palatable,  but  the  brown  stems  are 
coarse  and  tough,  and  can  be  recommended  only  as  maintenance  feed 
for  mature  animals,  although  the  disappearance  of  the  grass  as  noted 
is  due  to  grazing  of  the  old  plants  as  well  as  of  the  fresh  growth. 
There  is  said  to  be  a  comparatively  small  shrinkage  in  cattle  fattened 
on  pili  grass.  Although  the  grass  is  perennial  it  is  necessary  to  insure 
reseeding  by  removal  of  the  stock,  since  many  clumps  are  uprooted 
or  injured  by  the  stock.  Pili  seems  to  be  " coming  back"  upon  cer- 
tain lower  areas  of  the  Molokai  ranch,  where  careful  management  is 
being  exercised. 

On  dry  lands  at  lower  elevations  an  effort  should  be  made  to  retain 
pili  byr  never  overstocking,  and  by  allowing  rest  at  intervals.  The 
seeds  are  quite  difficult  to  collect  and  it  wTould  be  tedious  wTork  to 
make  new  seedlings  over  extensive  areas.  With  imperfect  stands  of 
pili  about  15  acres  per  head  of  cattle  are  required. 

LeptocMoa  virgata,  Judd  grass,  is  another  grass  that  may  be  of  value 
for  hay  or  pasture.  At  the  experiment  station  and  at  Haleakala 
ranch  it  promises  well.  The  grass  was  introduced  only  recently 
from  Bermuda,  but  is  worthy  of  trial.  No  grazing  tests  have  been 
made. 

Andropogon  halepensis  or  Sorghum  Jialepense,  Johnson  grass,  also 
known  as  evergreen  millet,  is  considered  a  pest  in  the  cotton  and  corn 
lands  of  the  South.  The  grass  spreads  rapidly  by  seed  and  by  an 
underground  rootstock  and  when  once  started  is  already  out  of  con- 
trol. The  hay  crop  upon  Johnson  grass  infested  land,  however,  has 
often  been  sold  for  more  than  the  corn  or  cotton  that  would  have  been 
produced  at  the  additional  expense  of  fighting  the  grass,  and  there- 
fore, much  of  the  infested  land  has  been  set  aside  as  meadow  land. 
Although  the  grass  is  primarily  a  hay  grass,  producing  but  little  when 
continually  grazed,  yet  it  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  hay,  since 
the  growth  is  uneven.  It  is  easily  cured  and  makes  a  valuable  feed. 
The  best  quality  of  hay  is  obtained  when  cut  before  the  stems  become 


28 

coarse  and  hard.  Several  cuttings  annually  are  made.  From  1  to  2 
bushels  of  seed  have  been  recommended  per  acre,  and  thin  stands 
may  be  thickened  by  allowing  seed  to  mature  and  fall.  In  old 
meadows  the  rootstocks  become  matted  near  the  surface  and  the  crop 
is  affected  by  drought.  Such  meadows  are  benefited  by  plowing 
every  third  or  fourth  year. 

The  grass  is  drought  resistant,  nutritious,  and  palatable.  The 
only  objections  to  it  are  its  inability  to  withstand  a  close  pasturing, 
and  the  difficulty  of  eradicating  it  from  cultivated  fields.  Small 
areas  can  be  cleaned  by  confining  hogs  thereon.  Plowing  when  very 
dry  and  raking  out  the  stems  with  spike-tooth  harrows  is  only  partially 
effective. 

To  eradicate  Johnson  grass,  pasture  closely  or  cut  frequently  for 
about  two  seasons,  then  plow  shallow;  put  in  a  cultivated  crop  and 
cultivate  thoroughly. 

In  Hawaii  Johnson  grass  has  been  planted  in  various  places.  It 
is  more  or  less  of  a  pest  in  alfalfa  fields  on  Oahu,  and  occurs  in  some 
of  the  cane  fields  along  the  Kahului  Railroad,  on  Maui. 

The  two  following  grasses  are  recommended  for  planting  in  prefer- 
ence to  Johnson  grass,  since  they  can  be  easily  destroyed  when  the 
land  is  wanted  for  other  crops.  According  to  some  reports  given  in 
the  meetings  of  the  Hawaiian  Live  Stock  Breeder's  Association,  John- 
son grass  thrives  up  to  2,000  feet,  while  other  reports  say  that  600 
feet  is  too  high  for  it.  Some  reported  it  as  well  liked  by  cattle,  while 
Mr.  Isenberg  stated  that  cattle  at  Waialae  preferred  almost  anything 
else  to  Johnson  grass. 

Andropogon  sorghum  var.,  Sudan  grass  (PI.  VII,  fig.  2,  a),  another 
African  grass,  closely  resembling  Johnson  grass,  but  without  its  under- 
ground rootstock,  has  recently  been  introduced  and  distributed  to  a 
few  of  the  ranches.  At  the  experiment  station  this  grass  in  a  small 
trial  plat,  with  frequent  light  showers  in  the  spring  of  1913,  made  a 
growth  of  4  feet  9  inches  to  5  feet,  and  began  flowering  in  55  days 
from  planting  the  seed.  Good  reports  of  it  have  been  received  from 
Haleakala  ranch  and  from  Princeville  plantation.  Tests  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  have  been  made  and  favorable  reports 
received  as  to  its  value.  The  table  of  composition  shows  it  to  be  above 
the  average  in  feeding  value.  Horses  are  extremely  fond  of  it  green 
or  dry,  and  no  doubt  the  same  will  hold  true  with  other  stock. 

Sudan  grass  ratoons  readily,  but  judging  from  a  single  ratoon  crop, 
grown  in  the  dry  month  of  August  at  Honolulu,  the  ratoon  crop  will 
not  be  as  valuable  as  the  first  crop.  The  first  crop  had  many  fine 
stems;  the  ratoon  crop  had  a  few  much  larger  ones,  which  is  objection- 
able. Further  experiments  will  determine  its  value.  The  seeds  are 
large  and  well  liked  by  stock  and  also  by  birds.  This  grass  and  the 
one  preceding  and  following  are  small  sorghums,  and  may  be  easily 


29 

distinguished  from  other  grasses.  Sudan  grass  is  not  easily  distin- 
guished from  Tunis  grass.  It  grows  more  rapidly  at  first,  has  broader 
leaves,  and  is  a  better  feed. 

Andropogon  sorghum  var.,  Tunis  grass  (PL  VII,  %.•  2,  b),  is  very 
similar  to  the  Sudan  grass,  but  has  longer  narrow  panicles,  and  sheds 
its  seed  very  readily.  It  has  the  same  good  points  as  Sudan  grass, 
but  to  a  less  degree. 

LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

The  leaves  of  leguminous  trees  furnish  some  grazing,  particularly 
for  cattle.  The  koa  and  mamani  at  higher  elevations  are  the  principal 
trees  with  forage  value.  At  lower  elevations  and  upon  leeward  sides 
the  kiawe  is  very  important.  It  is  more  fully  described  below.  The 
leaves  of  the  shrub  known  as  koahaole  are  eaten  by  cattle  and  horses, 
but  are  said  to  cause  the  falling  of  hair  from  mane  and  tail  of  horses. 
Weedy  plants,  like  the  inikoa  and  the  auhuhu,  have  some  forage  value. 

Of  the  smaller  plants,  the  white  clover,  hop  clover,  Indian  clover, 
and  bur  clover  are  very  valuable  at  higher  elevations  and  are  becom- 
ing more  widespread.  Spanish  clover  thrives  at  medium  and  low 
elevations  but  occurs  only  as  isolated  plants.  The  related  species, 
Desmodium  triflorum,  occurs  more  thickly;  it  is  a  small  creeping 
cloverlike  plant  having  purple  flowers  and  thrives  well  with  manienie 
or  pilipiliula.  The  black  medic  (having  yellow  flowers  and  some- 
times used  medicinally  by  the  Hawaii ans)  is  also  widely  distributed. 
Japan  clover  or  lespedeza,  which  has  proved  valuable  in  the  Southern 
States,  has  so  far  failed  under  Hawaiian  conditions,  although  tried  by 
several  experimenters.  Fenugreek  grows  well  but  does  not  reseed 
itself  and  soon  disappears.  Crimson  clover,  Egyptian  clover,  and 
red  clover  thrive  under  certain  conditions  but  have  little  value  on  the 
range.  Alfalfa  thrives  in  certain  places,  but  when  once  established 
is  considered  too  valuable  for  pasturage,  although  it  is  excellent  for 
this  purpose,  particularly  for  hogs  and  horses.  The  following  table 
shows  the  principal  native  and  introduced  leguminous  forage  plants 
of  Hawaii: 

Leguminous  forage  plants. 


Botanical  name. 


Common  name. 


Acacia  koa. 


Cytisus  proliferus ' 

Desmodium  tortuosum i . . 

Desmodium  triflorum 

Desmodium  uncinatum... 


Tagosaste,  tree  lucern. 
Florida  beggarweed. . . 


Spanish  clover . 


Dolichos  lablab 

Hedyzaru  m  coronarium ' . .    Spanish  sulla. 

Indigo/era  anil Indigo 

Lespedeza  striata  > |  Japan  clover . 


Hawaiian  name. 


Koa. 


Kikania 

pilipili,  fhi 
Papapa 


ili,     Pua 
ioha. 


Inikoa . 


Remarks. 


Leaves     are     eaten     by 
cattle. 


Widely    distributed   an- 
nual. 
Rare  on  ranges. 

Has  some  forage  value. 


Plants  which  have  been  introduced  but  are  not  naturalized.    Some  have  disappeared. 


30 

Leguminous  forage  plants — Continued . 


Botanical  name. 


Common  name. 


Leitczna  glauca 

Medicago  apiculata  ■ . 
Medicago  denticulata . 


Medicago  lupulina 

Medicago  sativa 

Melilotus  indica 

Melilotus  officinalis ' 

Mimosa  pudica 

Phaseolus  scmierectus . . . 

Phaseolus  retusa* 

Prosopis  juliflora 

Sophora  chrysophylla 

Tephrosia  purpurea 

Trifolium  alexandrinum 

Trifolium  hybridum  i  . . . 

Trifolium  incarnaturn '. , 

Trifolium  pratense l 

Trifolium  procumbens. . . 


Koa  bush 

California  bur  clover. 


Black  medic,  hop  clover. 
Alfalfa 

Sour  or  Indian  clover.... 

Yellow  sweet  clover 

Sensitive  plant 


Algaroba. 


Egyptian  clover. 
Alsike  clover 


Trifolium  repens 

Trigonella       foenum-grse- 
cum.1 

Ulex  europxus 

Vicia  leavcnworthii 

Vicia  sativa 


Crimson  clover. 

Red  clover 

Hop  clover 


White  clover. 
Fenugreek. . . 


Gorse,  furze . . 
Stolley  vetch. 
Oregon  vetch. 


Hawaiian  name. 


Koahaole. 


Puahilahila. 


Kiawe.. 
Mamani. 
Auhola.. 


Remark- 


Leaves  and  pods  eaten. 

At  all  elevations  during 

cooler  months. 
At  all  elevations. 

At  high  elevations. 

Do. 
Leaves  eaten  by  sheep. 


Pods  and  beans  eaten. 
Leaves  are  eaten. 

For  wet  places;  low  ele- 
vations. 

High  places  having  plen- 
ty of  moisture. 

Cool  months  only. 

High  places  only. 

High  places  having  plen- 
ty of  moisture. 
Do. 


1  Plants  which  have  been  introdued  but  are  not  naturalized.    Some  have  disappeared. 

Prosopis  juliflora,  the  algaroba  tree,  or  kiawe,  as  it  is  known,  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  sources  of  feed  in  Hawaii.  It  is  one  of  the 
mesquite  trees.  It  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  in  1828,  covers  exten- 
sive areas,  and  will  eventually  cover  all  the  lower  elevations  not 
devoted  to  cultivated  crops.  The  algaroba  is  admirably  suited  to  dry 
regions.  It  is  found  in  large  tracts  on  the  leeward  sides  of  the 
islands.  Although  found  at  greater  elevations,  it  occurs  mostly  below 
1,000  feet,  probably  because  of  its  preference  for  dry  localities.  The 
tree  is  a  source  of  a  large  part  of  the  honey  produced  in  the  island. 
The  wood  is  very  valuable  for  fuel.  The  ranchers  most  dependent 
upon  the  algaroba  find  it  to  their  interests  to  carry  on  a  honey  busi- 
ness in  connection  with  their  other  work,  but  it  is  here  considered 
merely  as  a  feed  for  stock.  The  pods  contain  a  number  of  seeds, 
encased  in  a  hard  seed  coat,  and  surrounded  by  a  sugary,  gummy 
substance.  The  analysis  of  the  entire  pod  is  given  by  Shorey  1  as: 
Water,  15.26  per  cent;  protein,  8.89;  fat,  0.58;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
47.27;  crude  fiber,  24.75;  and  ash,  3.25  per  cent.  The  beans  of  the 
algaroba,  being  protected  by  a  hard  seed  coat,  escape  mastication 
and  digestion  and  pass  through  the  alimentary  tract  entire.  This 
fact  accounts  largely  for  the  rapid  and  widespread  distribution  of 
this  species  in  the  islands.  Domestic  animals  have  been  the  greatest 
factor  in  scattering  the  seed. 

For  several  years  experiments  in  milling  the  pods  proved  of  no 
avail.     The  sugary  pulp  gradually  accumulated  upon  the  crushers  or 


Hawaii  Sta.  Bui.  13. 


31 

rollers  of  the  mill  and  caused  a  heating  of  the  machinery.  To  secure 
the  full  feeding  value  of  the  pod  grinding  in  some  manner  was  neces- 
sary. Experiments  were  continued  until  the  successful  grinding  of 
the  pods  was  accomplished  by  two  methods: 

( 1)  By  kiln  drying  the  pods  and  grinding  in  the  mills  used  for  mak- 
ing alfalfa  meal. 

(2)  By  using  a  machine,  devised  by  C.  W.  Renear,  of  Honolulu,  in 
which  a  small  spray  of  water  is  used  to  keep  the  rolls  clear  of  the 
gummy  substance. 

The  finished  product  obtained  by  the  first  method  is  fine,  while 
the  product  of  the  second  is  coarse.  As  to  the  difference  in  feeding 
value,  nothing  is  known.  In  both  methods,  however,  the  seed  is 
crushed  and  more  of  the  full  value  should  be  obtained. 

While  to  the  dairyman,  liveryman,  contractor,  plantation  manager, 
or  to  others  who  feed  their  animals  in  barns  or  yards  the  grinding  of 
feed  will  result  in  saving,  yet  to  the  ranchman  this  saving  is  not  pos- 
sible, since  his  stock  pick  up  the  beans  and  consume  them  on  the  spot. 

Women,  children,  and  aged  or  infirm  men  of  various  nationalities 
pick  up  the  beans  along  the  roadsides,  in  yards,  or  in  unused  fields 
and  sell  them  to  consumers  and  to  the  feed  mills  at  10  and  15  cents 
per  barley  bag. 

The  algaroba  is  a  great  help  to  ranchmen  in  carrying  their  stock 
through  the  dry  season.  In  years  of  drought  there  is  some  loss  of 
the  cattle  for  want  of  feed,  and  this  time  of  scarcity  has  been  bridged 
over  by  the  algaroba  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The  pods  fall  from 
June  until  November,  but  the  heaviest  fall  is  during  July  and  August, 
or  just  when  most  needed. 

Exclusive  feeding  on  algaroba  beans  is  not  dangerous,  but  because 
of  the  richness  of  the  feed  it  is  better  to  feed  some  roughage  with  the 
beans.  After  being  in  the  algaroba  belt  for  some  time,  the  cattle 
become  ravenous  for  other  feed  and  will  eat  leaves,  twigs,  and  bark  of 
shrubs  and  trees  which  are  not  touched  at  other  times.  Even  the  marsh 
plant  (akulikuli)  is  eaten.  On  some  of  the  ranches  the  watering 
troughs  are  placed  so  as  to  compel  the  animals  to  come  out  of  the 
algaroba  for  water.  In  so  doing  they  feed  more  or  less  on  other 
plants.  Ranch  managers  think  that  they  are  benefited  by  so  doing. 
When  milk  cows  are  fed  on  algaroba,  milk  consumers  complain  of  a 
bad  flavor  in  the  milk.  In  some  cases,  bowel  troubles  in  children 
have  been  attributed  to  the  feeding  of  the  algaroba  by  dairymen. 

One  of  the  great  problems  of  the  ranches  is  to  provide  other  forage 
to  supplement  the  algaroba.  Corn  stover  when  shredded  and  baled 
partly  solves  the  problem,  but  the  quantity  of  such  feed  is  too  meager. 
Dry-land  grasses  and  plants  of  the  poorer  kinds,  grown  just  above  the 
algaroba  belt,  must  be  relied  upon  to  help  in  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, while  saltbushes  may  aid  upon  salty  lands  near  the  coast.     Sand 


32 

bur,  yard  grass,  rat-tail  grass,  pili,  Rhodes  grass,  and  various  annual 
weeds  all  help  to  supply  the  varied  ration  needed  at  this  time. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

Many  other  plants  are  fully  as  important  for  forage  as  some  of  the 
grasses  and  legumes.  A  number  of  our  annual  weeds  are  as  nutri- 
tious and  palatable  as  the  grasses,  and  are,  immediately  following 
rainy  seasons,  the  most  important  fattening  feeds  upon  certain 
areas.     A  list  of  some  of  the  more  common  species  is  given  below: 

Miscellaneous  forage  plant*. 


Botanical  name. 

Common  name. 

Hawaiian  name. 

Remarks  on  elevation 
and  forage  value. 

Amaranthus  palmer  i  i 

Careless  weed 

A  triplex  leptocarpa  1 

A  triplex  nummularia  l 

Slender-fruited  saltbush. 
Round-leaved  saltbush. . 

Saltbushes  are  adapted 
to    dry    and    alkaline 
soils. 

Atriplex  holocarpa  * 

All-fruited  saltbush 

Atriplex  semibaccata 

Half-berried  saltbush 

A.    semibaccata    is    well 
established    at    Moku- 
leia  on  Oahu. 

A  triplex  nuttallii l 

Arizona  saltbush 

Eaten  by  cattle  when  in 
kiawe. 

Bidcns  pilosa 

Ki,  puaki,  lauki 

■Bcchmcria  stivularis. 

by  all  kinds  of  stock. 
Shrub,  leaves  eaten  by 

cattle. 
Leaves   eaten   by  cattle 

and  sheep,  and  roots 

by  hogs. 

Bcerhaavia  diffusa 

Alena 

Campylotheca  spp 

Kookolau 

Commelina  nudiflora 

Cordvline  terminalis 

Honohono 

In  wet  places,  relished 

Kiorti 

by  cattle. 
Leaves  eaten  by  cattle. 
Of  little  value,  grazed  by 

horses. 
Eaten  bv  horses. 

Kohekohe,  pipiwai 

Erigeron  canadensis 

Krodium  cicutarium 

Alfilar  ia ,  "  filar ee  " 

Dry  places;  high  eleva- 

.. do          

tions;    well    liked    by 
sheep. 
Do. 

Koko  or  akoko 

Leaves  eaten. 

Dry  places. 

In  forests,  leaves  eaten 

Uki 

by  cattle. 
At  elevations  of  1,000  to 

Qossypium  tomentosum.. . 

Mao  or  huluhulu 

3,500    feet;    eaten    by 
horses  and  cattle. 
Leaves  eaten  by  cattle 
and  sheep. 
Do. 

Hypochxris  radicata 

Valuable  annual  on  Hale- 

Wild  morning-glory 

Koali 

akala. 

Pukamole 

Kyllingia  monocephala 

Kaluha,  pipiwai 

Eaten  but  little. 

Valuable  annual  on  Hale- 

Malvattrum  tricuspidatum 
Opuntia  spp 

akaia. 
Valuable  on  drv  ranches. 

Prickly  pear,  cactus 

Papipi  or  panini 

Ulei 

Valuable  ieed  in  time  of 

drought,    occurs   from 

sea  level  to  2,800  feet. 

Berries  and  leaves  eaten. 

"Akole" 

Plantago  lanceolata 

Rib  grass,  black  plantain 

Occurs  from  sea  level  to 

Ifii,  akulikulilaulii 

4,000    feet;    eaten    by 
sheep. 
Widely  distributed, liked 

by  hogs. 

1  Introduced  but  not  naturalized,  rare. 


33 


Miscellaneous  forage  plants — Continued . 


Botanical  name. 


Portulaca  sclerocarpa. 


Prunella  vulgaris 

Richardsonia  scabra  l. 

Ricinus  communis. .. 


Salvia  cocci nea. 


Sanguisorba  minor 


Scirpus  maritimus 

Sesuvium  portulacastrum. 


Sida  spp. 
Sida  sp.. 


Silcnc  struthioloides . 
£onchus  olcraceus. . 


Taraxacum  officinale. . . 
Vaccini'.!.:n  ruiculatum. 


Xanth^m  strvmarium.. 


Common  name. 


Self-heal 

Mexican  clover. 
Castor  bean 


Red  sage. 


Field  or  sheep  burnet. 
Sedge 


Sow  thistle. 
Dandelion. 


Coeklebur. 


Hawaiian  name. 


Ihimakole. 


Koli 

Lililohua. 


Akulikuli. 


Ilima 

Kukailio. 


Pualele. 


Ohela... 
Kikania. 


Remarks  on  elevation 
and  forage  value. 


At  elevations  of  2,000  to 
5,000  feet  less  valuable 
than  the  preceding. 

Quite  rare. 

Leaves  eaten  by  horses 

and  cattle. 
Very  fattening  for  steers 

but  causes  abortion  in 

cows. 
Similar  to  alfilaria,  in  dry 

regions,  eaten  by  sheep. 
Of  slight  forage  value. 
In  marshy  places,  eaten 

by     cattle     when     in 

kiawe. 
Leaves  eaten  by  sheep. 
Leaves  eaten  by  cattle 

and    sheep,    and    oily 

seeds  eaten  by  cattle. 
Fleshy    root    eaten    by 

hogs. 
Very  valuable  annual  at 

all  elevations. 
Valuable  in  higher  lands. 
At  elevations  of  4,000  to 

8,000  feet,  leaves  and 

berries  eaten. 
Leaves  eaten  by  sheep 

and  also  by  cattle  when 

in  cactus. 


i  Introduced  but  net  naturalized,  rare. 

The  sow  thistle  or  pualele  is  found  in  every  region  and  at  all  ele- 
vations; it  is  nutritious  and  palatable  and  well  liked  by  all  kinds  of 
stock,  including  poultry,  rabbits,  and  water  buffalo.  It  is  therefore 
one  of  the  most  important  plants  in  this  list. 

Next  to  the  sow  thistle  come  common  purslane  and  Spanish  needles. 
These  likewise  are  widely  distributed,  nutritious,  and  fairly  well 
liked  by  stock. 

At  elevations  above  3,000  feet  the  common  dandelion  and  the  two 
related  composites,  HypocJixris  radicata  and  Lampsana  communis,  are 
valuable  as  fattening  feeds. 

Alfilaria  at  all  elevations  above  4,000  feet  becomes  valuable, 
especially  for  sheep.  Erodium  cicutarium  is  the  true  alfilaria.  E. 
moschatum,  however,  is  the  more  common  species  and  is  of' greater 
value.1  It  is  widely  distributed  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  occurs 
from  sea  level  to  the  snow  line.  E.  cygnorum  is  native  to  Aus- 
tralia and  very  valuable  in  the  drier  portions  of  that  country.  Alfil- 
aiia  is  found  in  Hawaii  at  its  best  only  at  the  higher  elevations  of  the 
Parker  ranch,  the  Humula  sheep  station,  and  Puuwaawaa,  but  it  is 
found  on  Molokai,  Haleakala,  and  other  ranches  in  less  abundance. 


U.  8.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agrostol.  Bui.  2  (rev.  ed.). 


34 

The  species  found  on  Haleakala  is  said  to  be  different  and  less  val- 
uable than  the  one  on  Parker  ranch  and  is  probably  E.  cicutarium. 

Alfilaria  is  an  annual  weed  that  conies  up  on  unsodded  areas,  mak- 
ing a  good  growth  of  leaves  during  or  following  the  rains  and  furnish- 
ing feed  for  cattle,  and  especially  for  sheep,  for  some  time  after  the 
dry  season  opens. 

Alfilaria  grows  and  seeds  at  a  lower  level  but  does  not  seem  to 
spread. 

Field  burnet  is  similar  in  habit  to  the  alfilaria  but,  at  lower  levels, 
makes  a  greater  growth  of  leaves  and  should  be  more  valuable.  In 
two  trials  at  the  experiment  station  it  has  produced  no  seed.  It 
should  be  tried  out  at  higher  elevations. 

The  malvaceous  plants,  Malvastrum  tricuspidatum,  Sida  spp.,  and 
Gossypium  tomentosum,  are  excellent  drought-resisting  plants  and 
furnish  considerable  forage.  The  ilima  is  very  common  upon  Lanai 
and  Molokai  and  is  closely  grazed  by  sheep.  Another  species  of 
Sida,  known  as  kukailio,  is  valued  also  for  its  oily  seeds,  which  are 
well  liked  by  cattle. 

In  wet  regions  one  of  the  most  valuable  feeds  is  honohono.  Among 
the  dairymen  at  Glenwood,  Hawaii,  honohono  is  considered  their 
most  valuable  " grass."  They  rely  chiefly  on  this  and  Para  grass  for 
roughage. 

Black  or  narrow-leaved  plantain  was  introduced  as  "rib  grass" 
from  Australia.  It  has  some  forage  value  for  sheep.  It  is  considered 
undesirable  in  most  places,  and  even  Australia  has  now  put  it  in  the 
list  of  obnoxious  weeds. 

The  saltbushes.  There  are  many  species  of  saltbushes,  nearly  all 
of  which  furnish  forage.  They  are  tolerant  of  alkali  and  resistant  to 
drought,  and  are  held  in  high  favor  by  ranchmen  in  California, 
Arizona,  and  in  Australia.  Several  species  have  been  tried  out  in 
Hawaii.  The  half-berried  saltbush  fully  covers  a  small  field  near 
Mokuleia,  Oahu.  This  field,  however,  has  not  been  grazed  for  several 
years.  In  adjoining  paddocks  only  occasional  plants  are  found,  but 
these  were  closely  grazed  by  the  cattle.  On  Molokai  the  same 
species  and  also  some  of  the  Arizona  species  were  tried.  When 
protected  from  stock  the  plants  did  well,  but  the  cattle  when  in  the 
kiawe  became  so  ravenous  for  other  feed  that  they  eradicated  the 
saltbushes. 

It  may  prove  feasible  in  attempting  to  establish  saltbushes  to  obtain 
seed  enough  for  a  larger  area  and  then  protect  it  until  the  plants  are 
well  rooted.  A  few  isolated  plants  in  early  stages  of  growth  stand 
little  chance  against  the  grazing  of  a  large  herd. 

Balis  maritima  and  Sesuvium  portulacastrum,  both  known  as  aku- 
likuli  and  both  grown  in  salt  marshes,  are  not  ordinarily  eaten  by 
stock,  but  during  kiawe  season  they  are  readily  consumed. 


35 

The  members  of  the  sedge  family  furnish  but  little  grazing.  Usu- 
ally they  are  coarse,  fibrous,  innutritious,  and  rather  unpalatable  to 
stock.     The  few  that  are  named  furnish  some  feed. 

The  list  includes  besides  the  above  mentioned  a  number  of  native 
trees,  shrubs,  vines,  ferns,  herbs,  and  roots,  all  of  which  furnish  some 
feed  for  stock;  also  a  few  introduced  species,  not  yet  established. 

The  prickly  pear  (Opuntia  sp.).  The  cactus  known  as  prickly 
pear,  or  panini,  is  one  of  the  important  forage  crops  of  Hawaii.  On 
some  ranches  there  are  large  areas  fairly  well  covered  with  this  plant. 
On  Ulupalakua,  for  example,  there  are  2,000  acres,  on  the  Haleakala 
ranch  1,500  acres,  on  leeward  Hawaii  10,000  acres. 

Stock  eat  cactus  chiefly  during  the  dry  season  when  other  feed  is 
wanting.  In  Texas  it  is  said  that  cattle  on  cactus  range  drink  about 
once  weekly  in  winter  months  and  in  summer  months  two  or  three 
times.  In  Hawaii  there  are  cattle  3  and  4  years  old  that  do  not  know 
the  taste  of  water  or  how  to  drink  it.  The  cactus  is  both  feed  and 
drink  for  them.  Besides  being  used  as  a  pasture  for  certain  cattle  at 
all  times,  the  cactus  fields  serve  as  insurance  against  loss  of  cattle  dur- 
ing extreme  drought.  At  such  times  the  cattle  are  brought  from 
other  pastures.  They  soon  learn  to  feed  on  the  cactus,  and  when  all 
the  fresh  lower  joints  are  consumed  the  upper  portion  is  cut  for  them 
from  day  to  day.  In  the  Southwestern  States  the  spines  are  burned 
off  or  softened  by  steaming  before  feeding.  In  Hawaii  the  spines  are 
not  removed. 

Cactus  is  an  emergency  feed  for  the  beef  producer,  but  is  of  value 
at  all  times  to  a  dairyman,  since  it  can  largely  replace  silage  as  a  suc- 
culent feed  in  a  ration  for  the  dairy  cows.  This  feed  may  cause  an 
odor  or  bitter  flavor  in  the  milk  and  may  produce  blue  milk  and  pale 
butter.  One  dairyman  fed  100  pounds  of  cactus,  9  of  brewers'  grains, 
and  3  of  cottonseed  meal  with  good  results.  Another  recommends 
35  pounds'  chopped  cactus,  3  quarts  bran,  and  1  quart  cottonseed 
meal  twice  daily  when  the  cattle  have  a  little  outside  pasture.  For 
fattening  mature  steers  from  100  to  200  pounds  of  cactus  daily  is  rec- 
ommended along  with  from  1  to  6  pounds  of  grain  feed. 

The  following  table  gives  the  composition  of  cactus  in  Hawaii  :l 

Composition  of  Hawaiian  prickly  pears. 


Water. 

Trotein. 

Fat. 

Nitrogen- 
free  ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Ash. 

Young  fronds 

Perct. 
94.  03 
94.62 

Perct. 

0.44 

.39 

Perct. 

0.07 

.09 

Per  ct. 
3.22 
3.10 

Perct. 

0.52 

.61 

Perct. 
L  12 

Old  fronds 

L  13 

Hawaii  Sta.  Bui.  13. 


36 

The  younger  fronds  are  slightly  superior  to  the  old  ones.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  the  plant  requires  a  longer  time  to  recover 
when  the  older  parts  of  the  plant  have  been  severed.  It  requires 
from  two  to  seven  years  for  the  plant  to  replace  itself,  depending  upon 
the  amount  which  is  cut  down,  the  age  of  the  plant,  the  season,  and 
whether  or  not  the  older  trunks  are  cut. 

A  yield  of  68f  tons  was  obtained  from  a  growth  of  31  months, 
equal  to  22  tons  per  acre  annually  from  a  cultivated  crop.  When  no 
cultivation  was  given  and  grass  allowed  to  grow,  the  yield  was  only 
one-eighth  of  this  amount.  In  the  above  tests  the  plants  were 
planted  2  by  6  feet  apart. 

At  Haleakala  ranch  on  Maui  the  manager  informs  the  writer  that  in 
a  field  of  1,500  acres  of  cactus  (PI.  IX,  fig.  1)  be  keeps  a  total  of  700 
head  of  different  ages  throughout  the  entire  year. 

Dr.  Griffiths  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  spineless  cactus  can  not  re- 
place the  spined  forms  on  ranches.  It  is  less  hardy,  grows  more 
slowly,  must  be  cultivated  in  order  to  furnish  any  considerable 
amount  of  feed,  must  be  fenced  to  protect  it  from  the  cattle,  and 
finally  must  be  cut  and  hauled  out  to  the  cattle,  since,  if  allowed 
access  to  it,  the  cattle  will  surely  kill  it.1 

In  Hawaii  there  are  several  different  forms  of  cactus,  some  of  which 
are  nearly  spineless,  but  the  larger  areas  are  covered  with  the  spiny 
forms  having  purple  or  whitish  fruits. 

Aside  from  its  use  as  forage,  the  prickly  pear  is  used  in  some  regions 
as  food  for  man,  either  raw  or  in  jellies.  The  young  joints  are  often 
pickled  or  cut  and  dried.  The  expressed  juice  is  used  in  whitewash 
for  exterior  work.  The  pulp  is  used  for  poultices  and  for  making 
cactus  candy.  The  ripe  fruit  in  some  parts  of  Hawaii  is  considered 
especially  valuable  as  food  for  swine,  and  the  latter  animals  also  to 
some  extent  make  use  of  the  fronds  if  the  spines  have  been  well  burned 
or  cut. 

Cacti  require  a  warm  climate  with  an  intermittent  rainfall.  In 
Hawaii  they  thrive  on  the  leeward  sides  of  the  islands  at  elevations 
between  300  and  2,500  feet.  They  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  but 
are  very  easily  propagated  by  cuttings.  Any  portion  of  the  plant 
placed  in  the  soil  will  take  root  and  grow. 

LESS  IMPORTANT  GRASSES. 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  the  less  important  grasses  which 
have  been  introduced  into  Hawaii: 

i  U.  8.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Indus.  Buls.  74, 124. 


Bui.  36,  Hawaii  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Plate  IX. 


Fig.  1.— A  Prickly  Pear  Pasture,  Haleakala  Ranch. 


Fig.  2.— A  Rocky  Pasture  where  Only  Annual  Weeds  and  Grasses  are  Found. 


Grasses  introduced  for  range  improvement  but  not  yet  established. 


Botanical  name. 


Common  name. 


Adapted  to  region. 


Agropyron  sm  ithii 

Agropyron  spicatum  (2) .... 

Agropyron  tenerum  (2) 

Agrostis  alba 

Agrostis  alba  var.  stolonifcra. 

Agrostis  scabra 

Agrostis  vulgaris 


Blue  joint 

Blue  joint  or  gumbo  grass,  wire  bunch 

Slender  wheat  grass 

Fiorin 


A  lopecurus  praterisis 

A  ndropogon  saccharoides  (1) . . . 

Andropogon  sericeus  (1) 

Andropogon  sorghum  (var.)  (1). 

A  rrhenatheru  m  clathts 

Astrehla  pcciinata  (3) 

Astrebla  triticoides  (3) 

A  vena  fatua 

Boutcloua  curtipendula  (2) 

Boutcloua  hirsuta  (2) 

Boutcloua  oligostachya  (2) 

Bromus  inermis  (2) 

Bulbilis  dactyloides  (2) 

Calamagrostis  langsdorfii 

Cenchrus  montanus 

Chloris  ciliata 

Chrysopogon  montanus 

Cynosurus  cristatus 

Danthonia  pilosa  (3) 

Danthonia semiannularis  (3)... 

Eleusine  segyptiaca  (1) 

Elymus  condensatus  (2) 

Eragrostis  abyssinica 

Eragrostis  brownii  (3) 

Eragrostis  leptostachya 

Festuca  duriuscula 

Festuca  elatior 

Festuca  ovina 

Festuca  ovina  var.  tenuifolia.. . 

Festuca  pratensis 

Festuca  rubra 

Festuca  rubra  (var. ) 

Festuca  viridula 

Hilaria  cenchroides  (2) 


Creeping  bent ■ 

Tickle  grass 

Herd's  grass,  redtop,  or  Rhode  Island 
bent. 

Meadow  foxtail 

Feather  sedge  or  fuzzy  top 

Australian  blue  grass 

Sudan  and  Tunis  grass 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass 

Mitchell  grass 

do 

Wild  oat 

Tall  grama  or  side  oats 

Hairy  grama  or  black  grama 

Blue  or  white  grama 

Smooth  brome  grass 

American  buffalo  grass 


Finger  grass. 


Crested  dogstail 

Wallaby  grass 

do 

Crowfoot  grass 

Western  or  giant  rye  grass. 
Teff 


Hilaria  mutica  (2) 

Leptochloa  virgata  (1) 

Lolium  iialicum 

Loliumitalicum  var.  westerwoldicum. 

Lolium  sp 

Lolium  sp 

Melinis  minutiflora  (1 ) 

lfuhlenbergia  porteri  (2) 

Panicum  bulbosum  (2) 

Panicum  lachnanthum 

Panicum  lanatum 

Panicum  spectabile 

Panicum  teianum 

Paspalum  elegans 

Paspalum  floridum 

Paspalum  nodosum 

Paspalum  stoloniferum 

Paspalum  virgatum  (1) 

Phalaris  commutata 

Phleum  pratense 

Poa  annua  (1) 

Poa  aquatica 

Poa  arachnifera 

Poa  compressa 

Poa  nemoralis 

Poa  senegalensis 

Polypogon  sp 

Sporobolus  cryptandrus  (2) 

8j>orobolus  indicus  (3) 

Bporobolus  wrightii  (2) 


Hard  fescue 

Tall  fescue 

Sheep  fescue 

Fine-leaved  fescue 

Meadow  fescue 

Red  fescue 

Chewing's  fescue 

Oregon  bunch  grass 

Curly  mesquite  or  southwestern  buf- 
falo grass. 
Black  grama,  galleta  or  cracker  grass. . . 

Judd  grass 

Italian  rye  grass 


North  of  Ireland  rye 

Poverty  Bay  rye  grass 

Molasses  grass,  or  Brazilian  grass 

Black  grama 

Bulbous  panic  grass  or  alkali  saccaton. 


Colorado  grass  or  Texas  millet. 


Canarv  grass 

Timothy 

Annual  meadow  grass. 
Water  meadow  grass . . 

Texas  blue  grass 

Canadian  blue  grass. . . 
Wood  meadow  grass. . 


Dropseed . . 
Smut  grass. 
Saccaton. . . 


Dry. 
Do. 

Moist. 

High,  wet. 

High. 
Dry. 

Do. 
Moist  to  dry. 
Moist. 
Dry. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Dry,  high. 
Dry. 


Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Dry,  low. 
Dry. 

Dry,  low,  or  medium. 
Dry. 


Moist,  high. 
High. 

Moist,  high. 
High,  moist. 

Do. 
Dry. 

Do. 

Do. 

Moist. 
Moist,  high. 

Do. 


Low,  wet 


Low,  moist. 
Moist. 
Medium,  moist. 

High,  moist. 

Wet. 

Moist. 


Dry. 


Do. 


38 

The  list  of  grasses  introduced  for  improvement  of  Hawaiian  pas- 
tures is  a  good  index  of  the  desire  and  efforts  of  stockmen  to  improve 
their  conditions.  The  grasses  in  the  above  list  are  not  yet  naturalized. 
The  grasses  marked  with  (1)  were  mentioned  with  the  more  impor- 
tant grasses  because  of  relationship  or  similar  habits  of  growth.  In 
Australia  Eleusine  cegyptiaca  is  spoken  of  as  being  a  better  grass  than 
E.  indica,  but  the  latter  is  much  more  common  in  Hawaii.  The 
grasses  marked  with  (2)  are  some  of  the  better  grasses  found  upon 
the  dry  plains  of  the  western  United  States,  and  those  marked  (3) 
are  mentioned  in  Australian  publications  as  being  very  valuable  upon 
their  dry  lands. 

None  of  the  American  grasses  has  succeeded,  although  the  tall 
grama  or  side  oats  grama  has  been  quite  favorably  mentioned,  and 
fuzzy  top  has  succeeded  to  a  small  degree  upon  Niihau  and  Kauai. 
Several  of  these,  including  the  grama  grasses,  the  buffalo  grasses,  the 
saccatons,  the  agropyrons,  and  smooth  brome  grass  are  so  valuable 
under  the  dry  conditions  of  the  West  that  it  seems  as  if  more  deter- 
mined efforts  should  be  made  to  establish  these  on  the  dry  lands  of 
Hawaii.  One  thing  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  regard  to  new  grasses, 
the  finer  the  grass  or  the  more  palatable,  the  closer  will  the  stock 
keep  it  grazed  and  the  less  chance  will  it  have  to  reseed  itself,  to 
spread,  or  to  survive  the  dry  season.  Secondly,  the  smaller  the  areas 
seeded  to  a  new  grass,  the  less  chance  does  it  have  to  succeed  under 
range  conditions.  The  seeding  of  somewhat  larger  areas  and  pro- 
tecting until  better  established  might  aid  in  overcoming  the  difficul- 
ties. The  failure  of  many  of  these  grasses  may  be  attributed  to  poor 
seed  or  to  bad  weather  conditions.  In  Hawaii  grasses  are  somewhat 
hard  to  start;  the  seeds  are  small  and  if  planted  deeply  the  young 
plants  never  come  through  to  the  surface.  If  planted  shallow,  the 
seed  sprout  with  good  conditions  of  moisture  but  the  surface  layer 
of  soil  dries  rapidly  on  account  of  wind  and  sun,  and  the  young  plant 
dies  before  being  able  to  root  well  and  secure  moisture  from  the  damp 
soil  beneath. 

Of  the  Australian  grasses  mentioned  in  this  fist  only  the  smut  grass 
is  spreading.  This  is  found  on  all  islands,  and  may  be  native.  It  is 
more  common  in  Kula  than  elsewhere,  according  to  the  observation 
of  the  writer.  It  is  very  drought-resistant,  but  tough  and  wiry  and 
better  feed  for  horses  than  for  cattle.  It  is  so  persistent,  however, 
that  it  might  be  of  value  with  other  secondary  grasses,  like  sand  bur 
and  yard  grass,  for  planting  adjacent  to  algaroba  belts.  The  Mitchell 
and  Wallaby  grasses  and  Eragrostis  brownii  should  be  given  further 
trial. 

Of  the  other  grasses,  CJirysopogon  montanus  has  shown  up  well 
in  trials  at  the  experiment  station,  teff  grass  is  an  important  grass  on 
the  dry  plains  of  Northern  Africa,  Panicum  bulbosum,  P.  spectabile, 


39 

and  Cenchrus  montanus  thrive  on  Haleakala  at  2,000  feet  or  more. 
The  species  of  Agrostis,  Festuca,  and  Lolium  prefer  rather  moist 
conditions  at  higher  elevations.  Phalaris  commutata  is  said  to  be  a 
poor  variety  of  Phalaris  bulbosa  but  has  given  some  promise  for 
medium  elevations.  Texas  blue  grass  is  an  important  winter  grass 
of  the  extreme  South  and  should  thrive  in  Hawaii  during  the  winter 
months.  Neither  Texas  blue  nor  Phalaris  commutata  seeded  in 
station  trials  but  are  easily  propagated  by  division  of  the  roots. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  PLANTING. 

For  marshy  places:  Such  grasses  as  Para  grass,  Colorado  grass,  or 
honohono  are  probably  the  best.  If  not  too  marshy  Paspalum  dila- 
latum  might  succeed.     Guinea  grass  also  requires  plenty  of  moisture. 

For  high  wet  districts:  Paspalum  dilatatum,  sweet  vernal  grass, 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  perennial  rye  grass,  white  clover, 
hop  clover,  and  possibly  alsike  clover. 

For  high  dry  regions:  Kentucky  blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  peren- 
nial rye  grass,  rescue  grass,  Yorkshire  fog  or  velvet  grass,  Paspalum 
dilatatum,  alfilaria,  field  burnet,  Indian  clover,  and  bur  clover. 

For  medium  elevations,  moist:  Paspalum  dilatatum,  Bermuda 
grass,  buffalo  grass,  Texas  blue  grass,  Paspalum  compressum,  Paspa- 
lum virgatum,  crab  grass,  rescue  grass,  Spanish  closer,  and  bur  clover. 

For  medium  elevations,  dry:  Paspalum  dilatatum,  Rhodes  grass. 
Natal  redtop,  fuzzy  top,  Bermuda,  side  oats  or  tall  grama,  crab 
grass,  Spanish  clover,  bur  clover. 

For  lower  elevations,  moist:  Paspalum  dilatatum,  Natal  redtop, 
Rhodes  grass,  Bermuda,  yard  grass,  Desmodium  triflorum,  Spanish 
clover,  bur  clover. 

For  lower  elevations,  dry:  Paspalum  dilatatum,  Rhodes  grass,  Natal 
redtop,  fuzzy  top,  yard  grass,  smut  grass,  buffalo  grass,  bur  grass,  crab 
grass,  kakonakona,  etc.;  Desmodium  triflorum,  Spanish  clover,  bur 
clover;  and  salt  bushes,  ilima,  pualele,  prickly  pear  (also  the  spineless 
forms),  and  algaroba. 

Upon  the  low  dry  lands  the  problem  of  forage  crops  is  more  difficult 
to  solve.  The  annual  grasses  and  weeds  coming  with  the  rains  are 
soon  devoured.  The  tenacious,  drought-resisting  grasses  which  sur- 
vive long  dry  spells  are  unable  to  produce  much  feed  during  such 
times.  The  result  is  that  feed  soon  becomes  scarce,  the  annuals  are 
so  closely  cropped  that  no  seed  is  formed,  and  the  pastures  therefore 
deteriorate  from  year  to  year. 

The  most  valuable  grasses  for  low  dry  regions  are  those  which  will 
withstand  long  drought  and  close  cropping  by  live  stock.  For  these 
reasons  buffalo  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Paspalum  dilatatum,  sand  bur 
or  bur  grass,   yard  grass,   and  possibly  smut  grass  are  especially 


40 

valuable.  Where  resting  of  paddocks  is  possible  and  overstocking 
never  allowed,  pili,  fuzzy  top,  Natal  redtop,  Rhodes  grass,  and  some 
of  the  newly  introduced  grasses,  like  Sudan  grass  and  CJirysopogon 
montanus,  are  to  be  recommended. 

PLANTING  GRASSES. 

The  rocky  steep  slopes  of  the  ranch  lands  of  Hawaii  can  not  be 
plowed  and  prepared  for  seeding  as  is  done  for  cultivated  crops. 
(PI.  IX,  fig.  2.)  Upon  each  ranch,  however,  there  is  some  land  which 
may  be  fitted  in  this  manner  for  seeding.  Whether  or  not  it  will  pay 
to  do  so  depends  on  local  conditions.  Klu,  guava,  pilipiliula,  etc.,  can 
not  furnish  much  feed.  It  would  be  unwise  to  destroy  them,  however, 
if  the  conditions  are  such  that  good  grasses  will  not  thrive.  The  cost 
of  clearing,  plowing,  fitting,  and  seeding  may  vary  from  $30  to  $50 
per  acre  and  would  be  justified  only  on  windward  sides  of  the  islands, 
where  a  good  rainfall  insures  feed  at  all  seasons.  In  fields  sodded 
with  piUpiliula,  but  clear  of  guave,  lantana,  or  klu,  it  will  usually  pay 
to  plow  whether  or  not  other  native  grasses  and  weeds  are  needed. 
The  pilipiliula  is  easily  killed  by  plowing  and  the  other  native  grasses 
and  weeds  which  come  up  greatly  exceed  pilipiliula  in  feeding  value. 

A  cheaper  but  less  thorough  method  consists  in  preparing  narrow 
strips  of  land  in  the  upper  pastures  at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing 
wind  and  seeding  these  strips  to  improved  grasses.  This  allows  the 
grasses  to  seed,  and  the  wind  carries  the  seed  upon  the  areas  between 
the  strips.  In  practice,  however,  the  stock  can  not  be  kept  off  long 
enough  for  the  seeding,  and  they  graze  tame  grasses  so  closely  that 
no  seed  is  formed.  The  smaller  the  percentage  of  the  area  thus 
planted  the  less  likelihood  there  is  of  the  formation  of  seed  and  the 
spread  of  the  plants.  One  or  more  of  these  strips  should  be  fenced 
to  protect  the  grasses  until  seed  is  formed.  One  of  these  strips  (or 
part  of  one  strip  if  there  is  but  one)  should  be  left  with  protection 
as  a  place  from  which  to  obtain  seed  for  further  plantings  upon  the 
ranch. 

Another  method  consists  in  running  furrows  at  intervals  across 
the  fields  and  planting  these  to  grass.  Single  furrows  break  up  the 
old  turf,  pulverize  a  small  portion  of  soil,  and  improve  conditions 
enough  to  give  other  grasses  a  fighting  chance.  Unless  one  know3 
the  comparative  vigor  of  the  old  and  the  new  species,  such  prepara- 
tion may  be  wasted  effort. 

Another  plan,  and  one  used  in  experimental  planting  generally, 
involves  fencing  an  acre  or  two,  preparing  the  land  thoroughly, 
dividing  it  into  plats  for  various  grasses,  and,  after  seeding,  leaving 
them  under  protection  until  all  have  seeded,  when  the  fence  may  be 
removed    and    the    struggle    for   existence    under   range    conditions 


41 

observed.  If  only  one  grass  or  a  mixture  is  used,  no  plat  subdivisions 
are  necessary. 

The  cheapest  plan,  but  hardly  the  most  economical,  is  to  plant 
without  any  preparation.  The  seed  may  be  scattered  broadcast 
from  the  saddle,  and  in  this  way  the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the 
paddocks  will  receive  seed.  For  many  range  grasses  this  method  is 
fairly  efficient,  but  for  others  some  preparation  of  soil  is  preferred. 
Some  seeds  are  able  to  bury  themselves,  while  others  require  shallow 
covering  by  hand  or  tool  or  by  heavy  downpours  of  rain.  With 
expensive  seed  it  is  always  better  to  prepare  the  soil  and  lightly 
cover  the  seed. 

Extension  of  plantings  of  grasses  may  be  accomplished  by  graz- 
ing the  stock  upon  them  when  full  of  ripe  seed  and  allowing  the  ani- 
mals to  roam  over  various  paddocks.  According  to  Munro  1  the 
seeds  of  some  grasses,  particularly  those  of  Paspalum  dilatatum,  are 
improved  in  germinating  quality  by  passing  through  animals. 

Mixtures  of  grass  seeds  are  desirable.  Some  root  more  deeply 
than  others,  and  thus  draw  upon  different  portions  of  the  soil.  Some 
spring  up  more  quickly  after  rains,  or  with  less  rain.  Some  endure 
under  wet  or  dry  conditions  longer  than  others.  Some  are  less  pal- 
atable than  others,  and  are  eaten  when  the  better  ones  are  gone. 
Many  annuals  thrive  with  perennials,  and  many  legumes  with  the 
grasses. 

With  such  grasses  as  manienie,  buffalo  gras3,  or  Para  grass  the  only 
quick  method  of  seeding  is  to  use  portions  of  the  running  stems. 
Many  other  grasses,  such  as  Guinea  grass,  Rhodes  grass,  and  Pas- 
palum dilatatum,  are  more  surely  propagated  by  planting  out  divi- 
sions of  the  roots. 

With  seed  that  is  scarce  and  high  in  price  it  will  often  prove  more 
economical  to  plant  the  seed  in  beds,  giving  irrigation  as  needed, 
transplanting  the  seedlings  to  the  large  fields  during  a  rainy  period, 
keeping  all  stock  fenced  out  until  the  plants  are  firmly  rooted. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  RANGE  LANDS. 

On  this  subject  no  formulas  can  be  given  which  will  apply  to  all 
the  ranch  land  in  Hawaii,  because  of  variations  in  conditions  and  the 
nature  of  the  forage  plants.  Most  paddocks  are  benefited  by  resting 
for  a  given  period  annually.  Kentucky  blue  grass  pastures  fail  in 
dry  weather  and  have  to  be  rested.  Annual  grasses  and  weeds  grow 
for  a  comparatively  short  season.2  It  is  important  to  remember 
that  unless  new  seeds  are  formed  such  pastures  may  be  ruined. 
Overstocking  results  in  the  disappearance  of  valuable  grasses  and 

*  Hawaii.  Forester  and  Agr.,  4  (1907),  p.  247. 

*  Plate  IX,  figure  2,  shows  a  rocky  pasture  In  which  annual  weeds  and  grasses  only  are  found.    Thaw 
are  large  areas  of  such  lands  in  HawaiL 


42 

weeds,  because  no  seeds  can  form  to  continue  the  species.  With 
such  grasses  as  manienie,  Hilo  grass,  and  maulaiki,  which  are  most 
palatable  when  young  and  tender,  and  which  are  not  destroyed  by 
overstocking,  continual  grazing  may  be  practiced  with  benefit  to  the 
pastures.  Such  pastures  are  also  benefited  by  occasional  burning  to 
destroy  the  old,  dried  growth,  insect  larvae,  and  vermin.  During 
dry  seasons  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  fires. 

UNDESIRABLE  AND  POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  the  undesirable  and  poisonous 
plants  that  are  met  with  upon  some  of  the  Hawaiian  ranches: 

Undesirable  and  poisonous  plants. 


Botanical  name. 


Common  name. 


Hawaiian  name. 


Remarks. 


Acacia  far  nesiana  ' 

Andropogon       halepensis 

(var.)  i 
Asclepias  curassavica  2 

Chztochloa  glauca  1 


Johnson  grass. 

Milkweed 

Yellow  foxtail. 


Klu , 

Nuumela,  kilika. 


Chrysopogon  aciculatus 

Cnicus  (?)  sp.1 

Eupatorium  sp.1 


Euphorbia  lorifolia  2. 


Common  thistle. 


Pilipiliula 

Pamakani 

Koko,  akoko. 


Lantana  camara 
Leucsena  glauca  2 


ilomordica  charantia  K 
Paspalum  orbiculare  i . 
Passiflora  fcetida  2 


Lantana . . 
Koa  bush . 


Chinese  cucumber . 
Rice  grass 


Koahaole. 
Mau-laiki. 


Psidium  guayava  1 . . 
Ricinus  communis  2. 
Rubus  jamaicensis  i. 


Salvia  coccinea  2 

Tephrosia  purpurea  2 1 


Guava 

Castor  bean 

Thimble  or  Hitchcock 

berry. 
Red  sage 


Koli. 


Lililehua. 
Auhola. . . 


Difficult  to  eradicate. 

Cases  of  poisoning  re- 
ported from  Oahu. 

Widely  distributed  on 
Kauai. 


Occupies  large  areas  on 
Maui. 

Contains  poisonous  ingre- 
dients. 

Said  to  cause  falling  of 
hair  from  horses'  tails. 


Contains    poisonous    in- 
gredients. 

Causes  abortion. 


Do. 

Contains    poisonous    in- 
gredients. 


1  These  plants  crowd  out  and  replace  the  plants  which  have  forage  value. 

2  Poisonous. 


CULTIVATED  FORAGE  CROPS. 

Cultivated  forage  crops  include  sugar  cane,  corn,  sweet  and  non- 
saccharin  sorghums,  Para  grass,  Guinea  grass,  Rhodes  grass,  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  millet,  teosinte,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  velvet 
beans,  jack  beans,  peanuts,  pigeon  peas,  horse  beans,  Canada  peas, 
hairy  vetch,  winter  vetch,  cassava,  sweet  potatoes,  sugar  beets, 
mangel- wurzels,  turnips,  rape,  carrots,  honohono,  spineless  cactus, 
kale,  cow  pumpkins,  etc. 

Sugar  cane  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  excellent  feed  in  the  form 
of  cane  tops  and  molasses.  Sorghum  is  fed  green  also,  as  is  some- 
times corn.  In  the  corn  belts  proper  only  little  of  the  stover  is  saved, 
the  grain  being  the  principal  thing  desired.  Corn  as  green  feed,  as 
stover,  or  as  silage  could  be  more  generally  used  as  a  source  of  feed. 


43 

Para  grass,  Guinea  grass,  honohono,  and  alfalfa  are  fed  principally 
in  the  green  state.  The  only  cured  feed  put  up  in  the  islands  is  that 
made  from  corn,  alfalfa,  and  Khodes  grass.  Cured  hay  is  thought  to 
be  unnecessary,  but  more  should  be  stored  for  reserve  feed  in  times  of 
shortage.  Curing,  especially  of  alfalfa,  is  impossible  in  some  places 
because  of  the  moist  air.  In  other  places  it  is  difficult,  and  it  is  only 
at  intervals  or  at  certain  seasons  when  it  is  possible  at  all.  More 
alfalfa  hay  would  be  put  up  were  it  not  for  this  fact. 

These  are  the  principal  cultivated  forage  crops,  the  others  being 
comparatively  rare.  It  is  hoped  to  emphasize  cultivated  forage 
crops  more  in  a  later  report. 

CONCLUSION. 

This  publication  includes  the  reports  of  several  of  the  ranch 
managers  and  the  observations  of  the  writer  made  upon  a  few  of  the 
ranches  and  is  not  considered  exhaustive.  Several  of  the  ranchmen 
did  not  report  when  requested.  Otherwise  the  published  report 
might  be  more  complete. 

The  only  available  printed  matter  upon  the  subject  of  grasses  were 
the  articles  in  the  Hawaiian  Forester  and  Agriculturist,  by  C.  C. 
Munro,  and  those  in  the  annual  report  of  the  Livestock  Association; 
also  Hillebrand's  Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Copies  of  the  report 
on  grasses  by  G.  C.  Munro  to  the  American  Sugar  Co.,  in  1903,  1904, 
and  1905  were  available,  and  these  reports  are  very  complete.  The 
report  of  W.  F.  Sanborn,  of  Hanalei,  deserves  special  mention  also 
for  its  completeness.  The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  receipt 
of  reports  (verbal  or  written)  and  of  courtesies  extended  by  L.  von 
Tempsky,  G.  P.  Cooke,  W.  F.  Sanborn,  A.  W.  Carter,  G.  C.  Munro, 
Eben  Low,  O.  Ludloff,  F.  A.  Clowes,  A.  McPhee,  D.  T.  Fleming,  A.  F. 
Judd,  Francis  Gay,  and  H.  J.  Lyman.  Thanks  are  also  extended  for 
botanical  identification  of  plants  to  Prof.  J.  F.  Rock,  of  the  College 
of  Hawaii,  and  especially  to  C.  N.  Forbes,  of  the  Bishop  Museum;  and 
for  a  review  of  the  manuscript  and  suggestions  given  by  Jared  G. 
Smith,  who  was  formerly  in  charge  of  this  station  and  instrumental 
in  introducing  many  of  the  grasses  reported  upon  herein. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  live  stock  men  will  be  helped  in  their 
efforts  at  range  improvement  by  this  report;  that  they  will  become 
more  interested  in  noting  the  forage  value  of  different  plants;  that 
they  will  continue  to  experiment  with  various  grasses  and  other 
plants;  and  that  they  will  report  any  mistakes  herein  committed  as 
well  as  any  additional  information  worth  while  to  the  experiment 
station  in  order  that  any  later  report  may  be  made  more  valuable. 


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